The Leo Programming Language

Compiler Architecture

Mermaid markup

graph LR
    Pass1(Syntax Parser) -- ast --> Pass2(Type Resolver)
    
    Pass2 -- imports --> Pass3(Import Resolver)
    Pass3 -- statements --> Pass4
    
    Pass2 -- statements --> Pass4(Synthesizer)
    
    Pass4 -- constraints --> Pass5(Program)

Language Specification

• Programs should be formatted:
  1. Import definitions
  2. Circuit definitions
  3. Function definitions

Defining Variables

Leo supports let and const keywords for variable definition.

let a = true; defines an allocated program variable a with boolean value true.

const a = true; defines a constant program variable a with boolean value true.

Allocated variables define private variables in the constraint system. Their value is constrained in the circuit on initialization.

Constant variables do not define a variable in the constraint system. Their value is constrained in the circuit on computation with an allocated variable. Constant variables cannot be mutable. They have the same functionality as const variables in other languages.

function add_one() -> {
    let a = 0u8;   // allocated, value enforced on this line
    const b = 1u8; // constant, value not enforced yet

    return a + b   // allocated, computed value is enforced to be the sum of both values
}

Computations are expressed in terms of arithmetic circuits, in particular rank-1 quadratic constraint systems. Thus computing on an allocated variable always results in another allocated variable.

Mutability

• All defined variables in Leo are immutable by default.
• Variables can be made mutable with the mut keyword.

function main() {
    let a = 0u32;
    //a = 1 <- Will fail
    
    let mut b = 0u32;
    b = 1; // <- Ok
}

Addresses

Addresses are defined to enable compiler-optimized routines for parsing and operating over addresses. These semantics will be accompanied by a standard library in a future sprint.

function main(owner: address) {
    let sender = address(aleo1qnr4dkkvkgfqph0vzc3y6z2eu975wnpz2925ntjccd5cfqxtyu8sta57j8);
    let receiver: address = aleo1qnr4dkkvkgfqph0vzc3y6z2eu975wnpz2925ntjccd5cfqxtyu8sta57j8;
    assert_eq!(owner, sender);
    assert_eq!(sender, receiver);
}

Booleans

Explicit types are optional.

function main() -> bool {
    let a: bool = true || false;
    let b = false && false;
    let c = 1u32 == 1u32;
    return a
}

Numbers

• The definition of a number must include an explicit type.
• After assignment, you can choose to explicitly add the type or let the compiler interpret implicitly.
• Type casting is not supported.
• Comparators are not supported.

Integers

Supported integer types: u8, u16, u32, u64, u128

function main() -> u32 {
    let a = 2u32; // explicit type
    let a: u32 = 1 + 1; // explicit type
    
    let b = a - 1; // implicit type
    let c = b * 4;
    let d = c / 2;
    let e = d ** 3;
    return e
}

Field Elements

function main() -> field {
    let a = 1000field; // explicit type
    let a: field = 21888242871839275222246405745257275088548364400416034343698204186575808495617; // explicit type
    let b = a + 1; // implicit type
    let c = b - 1; 
    let d = c * 4;
    let e = d / 2;
    return e
}

Group Elements

An affine point on the elliptic curve passed into the Leo compiler forms a group. Leo supports this set as a primitive data type.

function main() -> group {
    let a = 1000group; // explicit type
    let a = (21888242871839275222246405745257275088548364400416034343698204186575808495617, 21888242871839275222246405745257275088548364400416034343698204186575808495617)group; // explicit type
    let b = a + 0; // implicit type
    let c = b - 0; 
    return c
}

Operator Assignment Statements

function main() -> u32 {
    let mut a = 10;
    a += 5;
    a -= 10;
    a *= 5;
    a /= 5;
    a **= 2;

    return a
}

Arrays

Leo supports static arrays with fixed length.

function main() -> u32[2] {
    // initialize an integer array with integer values
    let mut a: u32[3] = [1, 2, 3];

    // set a mutable member to a value
    a[2] = 4;

    // initialize an array of 4 values all equal to 42
    let b = [42u8; 4];

    // initialize an array of 5 values copying all elements of b using a spread
    let c = [1, ...b];

    // initialize an array copying a slice from `c`
    let d = c[1..3];

    // initialize a field array
    let e = [5field; 2];

    // initialize a boolean array
    let f = [true, false || true, true];

    return d
}

Multidimensional Arrays

function main() -> u32[3][2] {
    let m = [[0u32, 0u32], [0u32, 0u32]];

    let m: u32[3][2] = [[0; 3]; 2];

    return m
}

Conditionals

Branching in Leo is different than traditional programming languages. Leo developers should keep in mind that every program compiles to a circuit which represents all possible evaluations.

If Else Ternary Expression

Ternary if [cond] ? [first] : [second]; expressions are the cheapest form of conditional. Since first and second are expressions, we can resolve their values before proceeding execution. In the underlying circuit, this is a single bit multiplexer.

function main() -> u32 {
    let y = if 3==3 ? 1 : 5;
    return y
}

If Else Conditional Statement

Leo supports the traditional if [cond] { [first] } else { [second] } which can be chained using else if. Since first and second are one or more statements, they resolve to separate circuits which will all be evaluated. In the underlying circuit this can be thought of as a demultiplexer.

function main(a: bool, b: bool) -> u32 {
    let mut res = 0u32;

    if a {
        res = 1;
    } else if b {
        res = 2;
    } else {
        res = 3;
    }

    return res
}

For loop

function main() -> fe {
    let mut a = 1field;
    for i in 0..4 {
      a = a + 1;
    }
    return a
}

Functions

function test1(a : u32) -> u32 {
    return a + 1
}

function test2(b: fe) -> field {
    return b * 2field
}

function test3(c: bool) -> bool {
    return c && true
}

function main() -> u32 {
    return test1(5)
}

Function Scope

function foo() -> field {
    // return myGlobal <- not allowed
    return 42field
}

function main() -> field {
    let myGlobal = 42field;
    return foo()
}

Multiple returns

Functions can return tuples whose types are specified in the function signature.

function test() -> (u32, u32[2]) {
    return (1, [2, 3])
}

function main() -> u32[3] {
    let (a, b) = test();
    // (a, u32[2] b) = test() <- explicit type also works
    return [a, ...b]
}

Function inputs

Main function inputs are allocated private variables in the program's constraint system. a is implicitly private.

function main(a: field) -> field {
    return a
}

Normal function inputs are passed by value.

function test(mut a: u32) {
    a = 0;
}

function main() -> u32 {
    let a = 1;
    test(a);

    return a // <- returns 1
}

Circuits

Circuits in Leo are similar to classes in object oriented langauges. Circuits are defined above functions in a Leo program. Circuits can have one or more members.

Circuit member values

Members can be defined as fields which hold primitive values.

circuit Point {
    x: u32
    y: u32
}
function main() -> u32 {
    let p = Point {x: 1, y: 0};
    return p.x
}

Circuit member functions

Members can also be defined as functions.

circuit Foo {
  function echo(x: u32) -> u32 {
    return x
  }
}

function main() -> u32 {
  let c = Foo { };
  return c.echo(1u32)
}

Circuit member static functions

Circuit functions can be made static, enabling them to be called without instantiation.

circuit Foo {
  static function echo(x: u32) -> u32 {
    return x
  }
}

function main() -> u32 {
  return Foo::echo(1u32)
}

Self and self

The Self keyword is supported in circuit functions.

circuit Circ {
  b: bool

    static function new() -> Self { // Self resolves to Foo
        return Self { b: true }
    }
}

function main() -> bool {
    let c = Foo::new();
    return c.b
}

The self keyword references the circuit's members.

circuit Foo {
    b: bool
  
    function bar() -> bool {
        return self.b 
    }
    
    function baz() -> bool {
        return self.bar()
    }
}

function main() -> bool {
    let c = Foo { b: true };

    return c.baz() 
}

Imports

Leo supports importing functions } } and circuits by name into the current file with the following syntax:

import [package].[name];

Import Aliases

To import a name using an alias:

import [package].[name] as [alias];

Import Multiple

To import multiple names from the same package:

import [package].(
    [name_1],
    [name_2] as [alias],
);

Import Star

To import all symbols from a package: Note that this will only import symbols from the package library lib.leo file.

import [package].*;

Local

You can import from a local file in the same package using its direct path. src/ directory by using its [file].leo as the [package] name.

import [file].[name];

Example:

src/bar.leo

circuit Bar {
    b: u32
}

function baz() -> u32 {
    return 1u32
}

src/main.leo

import bar.(
    Bar,
    baz
);

function main() {
    const bar = Bar { b: 1u32};
    const z = baz();
}

Foreign

You can import from a foreign package in the imports/ directory using its [package] name.

import [package].[name];

Example:

imports/bar/src/lib.leo

circuit Bar {
    b: u32
}

src/main.leo

import bar.Bar;

function main() {
    const bar = Bar { b: 1u32 };
}

Package Paths

Leo treats directories as package names when importing.

import [package].[directory].[file].[name]

Example:

We wish to import the Baz circuit from the baz.leo file in the bar directory in the foo package

imports/foo/src/bar/baz.leo

circuit Baz {
    b: u32
}

src/main.leo

import foo.bar.baz.Baz;

function main() {
    const baz = Baz { b: 1u32 };
}

Constraints

Assert Equals

This will enforce that the two values are equal in the constraint system.

function main() {
    assert_eq!(45, 45);
  
    assert_eq!(2fe, 2fe);
  
    assert_eq!(true, true);
}

Testing

Use the test keyword to add tests to a leo program. Tests must have 0 function inputs and 0 function returns.

function main(a: u32) -> u32 {
    return a
}

test function expect_pass() {
    let a = 1u32;

    let res = main(a);

    assert_eq!(res, 1u32);
}

test function expect_fail() {
    assert_eq!(1u8, 0u8);
}

Logging

Leo supports print!, debug!, and error! logging macros.

The first argument a macro receives is a format string. This must be a string literal. The power of the formatting string is in the {}s contained.

Additional parameters passed to a macro replace the {}s within the formatting string in the order given.

print!

Directly calls the println! macro in rust.

function main(a: u32) {
    print!("a is {}", a);
}

debug!

Enabled by specifying the -d flag after a Leo command.

function main(a: u32) {
    debug!("a is {}", a);
}

error!

Prints the error to console.

function main(a: u32) {
    error!("a is {}", a);
}

Leo Inputs

Private inputs for a Leo program are specified in the inputs/ directory. The syntax for an input file is a limited subset of the Leo program syntax. The default inputs file is inputs/inputs.leo.

Sections

A Leo input file is made up of sections. Sections are defined by a section header in brackets followed by one or more input definitions.

Section headers specify the target file which must have a main function with matching input names and types.

inputs/inputs.leo

[main] // <- section header
a: u32 = 1;
b: u32 = 2;

src/main.leo

function main(a: u32, b: u32) -> u32 {
    let c: u32 = a + b;
    return c
}

Input Definitions

Supported types

[main]
a: bool  = true;       // <- booleans
b: u8    = 2;          // <- integers
c: field = 0;          // <- fields
d: group = (0, 1)group // <- group tuples

Arrays

[main]
a: u8[4]    = [0u8; 4];      // <- single
b: u8[2][3] = [[0u8; 2]; 3]; // <- multi-dimensional

Leo CLI

Develop

leo new

To setup a new package, run:

leo new {$NAME}

This will create a new directory with a given package name. The new package will have a directory structure as follows:

- inputs # Your program inputs
    - inputs.leo # Your program inputs for main.leo
- outputs # Your program outputs
- src
    - main.leo # Your program
- tests
    - test.leo # Your program tests
- Leo.toml # Your program manifest

Flags

leo new {$Name} --bin

This will create a new directory with a given package name. The new package will have a directory structure as above.

leo new {$Name} --lib

This will create a new directory with a given package name. The new package will have a directory structure as follows:

- src
    - lib.leo # Your program library
- Leo.toml # Your program manifest

leo init

To initialize an existing directory, run:

leo init

This will initialize the current directory with the same package directory setup.

Flags

leo init supports the same flags as leo new

leo init --bin

leo init --lib

leo build

To compile your program and verify that it builds properly, run:

leo build

leo test

To execute unit tests on your program, run:

leo test

The results of test compilation and the constraint system will be printed:

 INFO  leo  Running 2 tests
 INFO  leo  test language::expect_pass compiled. Constraint system satisfied: true
ERROR  leo  test language::expect_fail errored: Assertion 1u8 == 0u8 failed

Run

leo setup

To perform the program setup, producing a proving key and verification key, run:

leo setup

Leo uses cryptographic randomness from your machine to perform the setup. The proving key and verification key are stored in the target directory as .leo.pk and .leo.vk:

{$LIBRARY}/target/{$PROGRAM}.leo.pk
{$LIBRARY}/target/{$PROGRAM}.leo.vk

leo prove

To execute the program and produce an execution proof, run:

leo prove

Leo starts by checking the target directory for an existing .leo.pk file. If it doesn't exist, it will proceed to run leo setup and then continue.

Next any input files in the inputs directory are parsed and all input values are passed to the program.

Once again, Leo uses cryptographic randomness from your machine to produce the proof. The proof is stored in the target directory as .leo.proof:

{$LIBRARY}/target/{$PROGRAM}.leo.proof

leo verify

To verify the program proof, run:

leo verify

Leo starts by checking the target directory for an existing .leo.proof file. If it doesn't exist, it will proceed to run leo prove and then continue.

After the verifier is run, Leo will output either true or false based on the verification.

Remote

To use remote compilation features, start by authentication with:

leo login

You will proceed to authenticate using your username and password. Next, Leo will parse your Leo.toml file for remote = True to confirm whether remote compilation is enabled.

If remote compilation is enabled, Leo syncs your workspace so when you run leo build, leo test, leo setup and leo prove, your program will run the program setup and execution performantly on remote machines.

This speeds up the testing cycle and helps the developer to iterate significantly faster.

Publish

To package your program as a gadget and publish it online, run:

leo publish

Leo will proceed to snapshot your directory and upload your directory to the circuit manager. Leo will verify that leo build succeeds and that leo test passes without error.

If your gadget name has already been taken, leo publish will fail.

Deploy

To deploy your program to Aleo, run:

leo deploy

Install

To install Leo from source, in the root directory of the repository, run:

cargo install --path .

TODO

• Change target directory to some other directory to avoid collision.
• Figure out how leo prove should take in assignments.
• Come up with a serialization format for .leo.pk, .leo.vk, and .leo.proof.