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271 lines
8.0 KiB
Markdown
271 lines
8.0 KiB
Markdown
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## Features
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Bend offers two flavors of syntax, a user-friendly python-like syntax (the default) and the core ML/Haskell-like syntax that's used internally by the compiler.
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You can read the full reference for both of them [here](docs/syntax.md), but these examples will use the first one.
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To see some more complex examples programs, check out the [examples](examples/) folder.
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We can start with a basic program that adds the numbers 3 and 2.
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```py
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def main:
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return 2 + 3
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```
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Normalizing this program will show the number 5.
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Be careful with `run` and `norm`, since they will not show any warnings by default. Before running a new program it's useful to first `check` it.
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Bend programs consist of a series of function definitions, always starting with a function called `main` or `Main`.
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Functions can receive arguments both directly and using a lambda abstraction.
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```py
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# These two are equivalent
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def add(x, y):
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return x + y
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def add2:
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return lambda x, y: x + y
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```
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You can then call this function like this:
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```py
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def main:
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sum = add(2, 3)
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return sum
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```
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You can bundle multiple values into a single value using a tuple or a struct.
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```py
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# With a tuple
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def Tuple.fst(x):
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# This destructures the tuple into the two values it holds.
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# '*' means that the value is discarded and not bound to any variable.
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(fst, *) = x
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return fst
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# With a struct
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struct Pair(fst, snd):
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def Pair.fst(x):
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match x:
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Pair:
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return x.fst
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# We can also directly access the fields of a struct.
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# This requires that we tell the compiler the type of the variable where it is defined.
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def Pair.fst_2(x: Pair):
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return x.fst
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```
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For more complicated data structures, we can use `enum` to define a algebraic data types.
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```py
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enum MyTree:
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Node(val, ~left, ~right)
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Leaf
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```
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We can then pattern match on the enum to perform different actions depending on the variant of the value.
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```py
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def Maybe.or_default(x, default):
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match x:
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Maybe/some:
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# We can access the fields of the variant using 'matched.field'
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return x.val
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Maybe/none:
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return default
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```
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We use `~` to indicate that a field is recursive.
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This allows us to easily create and consume these recursive data structures with `bend` and `fold`:
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```py
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def MyTree.sum(x):
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# Sum all the values in the tree.
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fold x:
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# The fold is implicitly called for fields marked with '~' in their definition.
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Node:
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return val + x.left + x.right
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Leaf:
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return 0
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def main:
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bend val = 0 while val < 0:
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# 'go' calls the bend recursively with the provided values.
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x = Node(val=val, left=go(val + 1), right=go(val + 1))
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then:
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# 'then' is the base case, when the condition fails.
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x = Leaf
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return MyTree.sum(x)
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```
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These are equivalent to inline recursive functions that create a tree and consume it.
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```py
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def MyTree.sum(x):
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match x:
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Node:
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return x.val + MyTree.sum(x.left) + MyTree.sum(x.right)
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Leaf:
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return 0
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def main_bend(val):
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if val < 0:
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return Node(val, main_bend(val + 1), main_bend(val + 1))
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else:
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return Leaf
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def main:
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return main_bend(0)
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```
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Making your program around trees is a very good way of making it parallelizable, since each core can be dispatched to work on a different branch of the tree.
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_Attention_: Note that despite the ADT syntax sugars, Bend is an _untyped_ language and the compiler will not stop you from using values incorrectly, which can lead to very unexpected results.
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For example, the following program will compile just fine even though `!=` is only defined for native numbers:
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```py
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def main:
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bend val = [0, 1, 2, 3] while val != []:
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match val:
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List.cons:
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x = val.head + go(val.tail)
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List.nil:
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x = 0
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then:
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x = 0
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return x
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```
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Normalizing this program will show `λ* *` and not the expected `6`.
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It's also important to note that Bend is linear (technically affine), meaning that every variable is only used once. When a variable is used more than once, the compiler will automatically insert a duplication.
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Duplications efficiently share the same value between two locations, only cloning a value when it's actually needed, but their exact behaviour is slightly more complicated than that and escapes normal lambda-calculus rules.
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You can read more about it in [Dups and sups](docs/dups-and-sups.md) and learn how pattern matching avoids this problem in [Pattern matching](docs/pattern-matching.md).
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To use a variable twice without duplicating it, you can use a `use` statement.
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It inlines clones of some value in the statements that follow it.
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```py
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def foo(x):
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use result = bar(1, x)
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return (result, result)
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# Is equivalent to
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def foo(x):
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return (bar(1, x), bar(1, x))
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```
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Note that any variable in the `use` will end up being duplicated.
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Bend supports recursive functions of unrestricted depth:
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```py
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def native_num_to_adt(n):
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if n == 0:
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return Nat.zero
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else:
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return Nat.succ(native_num_to_adt(n - 1))
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```
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If your recursive function is not based on pattern matching syntax (like `if`, `match`, `fold`, etc) you have to be careful to avoid an infinite loop.
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Since Bend is eagerly executed, some situations will cause function applications to always be expanded, which can lead to looping situations.
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You can read how to avoid this in [Lazy definitions](docs/lazy-definitions.md).
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Bend has native numbers and operations.
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```py
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def main:
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a = 1 # A 24 bit unsigned integer.
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b = +2 # A 24 bit signed integer.
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c = -3 # Another signed integer, but with negative value.
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d = 1.0 # A 24 bit floating point number.
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e = +0.001 # Also a float.
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return (a * 2, b - c, d / e)
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```
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`switch` pattern matches on unsigned native numbers:
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```py
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switch x = 4:
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# From '0' to n, ending with the default case '_'.
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0: "zero"
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1: "one"
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2: "two"
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# The default case binds the name <arg>-<n>
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# where 'arg' is the name of the argument and 'n' is the next number.
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# In this case, it's 'x-3', which will have value (4 - 3) = 1
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_: String.concat("other: ", (String.from_num x-3))
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```
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Bend has Lists and Strings, which support Unicode characters.
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```rs
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def main:
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return ["You: Hello, 🌎", "🌎: Hello, user"]
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```
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A string is desugared to a String data type containing two constructors, `String.cons` and `String.nil`.
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List also becomes a type with two constructors, `List.cons` and `List.nil`.
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```rs
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# These two are equivalent
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def StrEx:
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"Hello"
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def ids:
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[1, 2, 3]
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# These types are builtin.
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enum String:
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String.cons(head, tail)
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String.nil
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enum List:
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List.cons(head, tail)
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List.nil
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def StrEx:
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String.cons('H', String.cons('e', String.cons('l', String.cons('l', String.cons('o', String.nil)))))
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def ids:
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List.cons(1, List.cons(2, List.cons(3, List.nil)))
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```
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Characters are delimited by `'` `'` and support Unicode escape sequences. They are encoded as a U24 with the unicode codepoint as their value.
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```
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# These two are equivalent
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def chars:
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['A', '\u{4242}', '🌎']
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def chars2:
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[65, 0x4242, 0x1F30E]
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```
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### More features
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Key:
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- 📗: Basic resources
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- 📙: Intermediate resources
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- 📕: Advanced resources
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Other features are described in the following documentation files:
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- 📗 Lazy definitions: [Making recursive definitions lazy](docs/lazy-definitions.md)
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- 📗 Data types: [Defining data types](docs/defining-data-types.md)
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- 📗 Pattern matching: [Pattern matching](docs/pattern-matching.md)
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- 📗 Native numbers and operations: [Native numbers](docs/native-numbers.md)
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- 📗 Builtin definitions: [Builtin definitions](docs/builtin-defs.md)
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- 📗 CLI arguments: [CLI arguments](docs/cli-arguments.md)
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- 📙 Duplications and superpositions: [Dups and sups](docs/dups-and-sups.md)
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- 📙 Scopeless lambdas: [Using scopeless lambdas](docs/using-scopeless-lambdas.md)
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- 📕: Fusing functions: [Writing fusing functions](docs/writing-fusing-functions.md)
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## Further reading
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- 📙 [Compilation and readback](docs/compilation-and-readback.md)
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- 📙 [Old HVM wiki learning material](https://github.com/HigherOrderCO/HVM/wiki/HVM-Wiki). It is outdated, but it can still teach you some of the basics.
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