2014-06-29 00:59:14 +04:00
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---
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name: perl6
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category: language
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language: perl6
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filename: learnperl6.pl
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contributors:
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- ["Nami-Doc", "http://github.com/Nami-Doc"]
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---
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Perl 6 is a highly capable, feature-rich programming language made for the upcoming hundred years.
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Perl 6 runs on [the Parrot VM](http://parrot.org/), the JVM and [the MoarVM](http://moarvm.com).
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2014-07-16 22:08:01 +04:00
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```perl
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2014-06-29 00:59:14 +04:00
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# Single line comment start with a pound
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2014-07-16 22:08:01 +04:00
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#`(
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Multiline comments use #` and a quoting construct. (), [], {}, 「」, etc, will work.
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)
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2014-06-29 00:59:14 +04:00
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### Variables
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# In Perl 6, you declare a lexical variable using `my`
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# Perl 6 has 4 variable types :
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## - Scalars. They represent a single value. They start with a `$`
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my $str = 'String';
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my $str2 = "String"; # double quotes allow for interpolation
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2014-07-16 22:08:48 +04:00
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# variable names can contain but not end with simple quotes and dashes, and can contain (and end with) underscores :
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# my $weird'variable-name_ = 5; # works !
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2014-06-29 00:59:14 +04:00
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## - Arrays. They represent multiple values. They start with `@`
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my @array = 1, 2, 3;
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my @array = 'a', 'b', 'c';
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# equivalent to :
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2014-07-17 01:12:20 +04:00
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my @array = <a b c>; # array of words, delimited by space. similar to perl5's qw, or Ruby's %w
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2014-06-29 00:59:14 +04:00
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2014-07-17 01:12:20 +04:00
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say @array[2]; # Array indices start at 0 -- This is the third element
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2014-06-29 00:59:14 +04:00
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## - Hashes
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my %hash = 1 => 2,
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3 => 4;
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my %hash = autoquoted => "key",
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"some other" => "value", # trailing commas are okay
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;
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my %hash = <key1 value1 key2 value2> # you can also create a hash from an even-numbered array
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say %hash{'key1'}; # You can use {} to get the value from a key
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say %hash<key2>; # if it's a string, you can actually use <>
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## - Subs (subroutines, or functions in most other languages). Stored in variable, they use `&`
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sub say-hello { say "Hello, world" }
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2014-07-13 22:42:29 +04:00
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sub say-hello-to(Str $name) { # you can provide the type of an argument
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# and it'll be checked at compile-time
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say "Hello, $name !";
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}
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2014-06-29 00:59:14 +04:00
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# since you can omit parenthesis to call a function with no arguments, you need to use `&` also to capture `say-hello`
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my &s = &say-hello;
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my &other-s = sub { say "anonymous function !" }
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# `->`, lambda with arguments, and string interpolation
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my &lambda = -> $argument { "The argument passed to this lambda is $argument" }
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2014-07-17 01:12:20 +04:00
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# We're going to see how powerful Perl 6 subs are just a little down below, after seeing the basics of operators
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# and control flow structures
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2014-07-16 22:07:35 +04:00
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2014-07-13 22:42:29 +04:00
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### Containers
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# In Perl 6, values are actually stored in "containers".
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# the assignment operator asks the container on the left to store the value on its right
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# When passed around, containers are marked as immutable. Which means that, in a function,
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# you'll get an error if you try to mutate one of your argument.
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# If you really need to, you can ask for a mutable container using `is rw` :
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sub mutate($n is rw) {
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$n++;
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say "\$n is now $n !";
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}
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# If what you want is a copy instead, use `is copy`.
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# A sub itself returns a container, which means it can be marked as rw :
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my $x = 42;
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sub mod() is rw { $x }
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mod() = 52; # in this case, the parentheses are mandatory
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say $x; #=> 52
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2014-06-29 00:59:14 +04:00
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### Control Flow Structures
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# You don't need to put parenthesis around the condition, but that also means you always have to use brackets (`{ }`) for their body :
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## Conditionals
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2014-07-14 00:28:41 +04:00
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# - `if`
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if True {
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say "It's true !";
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}
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unless False {
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say "It's not false !";
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}
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2014-07-17 01:12:20 +04:00
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# You can also use their postfix versions, with the keyword after:
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say "Quite truthy" if True;
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# if (true) say; # This doesn't work !
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2014-07-14 00:28:41 +04:00
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# - Ternary conditional
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my $a = $condition ?? $value-if-true !! $value-if-false; # `??` and `!!` are like `?` and `:` in other languages'
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# - `given`-`when` looks like other languages `switch`, but it's much more powerful thanks to smart matching :
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2014-06-29 23:41:57 +04:00
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given "foo bar" { # given just puts its argument into `$_`, and `when` uses it using the "smart matching" operator.
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when /foo/ { # you'll read about the smart-matching operator below
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2014-06-29 00:59:14 +04:00
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say "Yay !";
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}
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when $_.chars > 50 { # smart matching anything with True gives True, so you can also put "normal" conditionals
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say "Quite a long string !";
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}
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}
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## Looping constructs
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2014-07-14 00:28:41 +04:00
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# - `loop` is an infinite loop if you don't pass it arguments, but can also be a c-style `for` :
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loop {
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say "This is an infinite loop !";
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last; # last breaks out of the loop, like the `break` keyword in other languages
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}
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loop (my $i = 0; $i < 5; $i++) {
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next if $i == 3; # `next` skips to the next iteration, like `continue` in other languages.
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# Notice that you can also use postfix conditionals, loops, etc.
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say "This is a C-style for loop !";
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}
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2014-07-14 00:28:41 +04:00
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# - `for` - Foreaches an array
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for @array -> $variable {
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say "I've found $variable !";
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}
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# default variable is $_
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for @array {
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say "I've got $_";
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}
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2014-07-17 01:12:20 +04:00
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# Note - the "lambda" `->` syntax isn't reserved to `for` :
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2014-06-29 00:59:14 +04:00
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if long-computation() -> $result {
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say "The result is $result";
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}
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2014-06-29 23:41:57 +04:00
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2014-07-14 00:28:41 +04:00
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### Operators
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2014-06-29 23:41:57 +04:00
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## Since Perl languages are very much operator-based languages
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## Perl 6 operators are actually just funny-looking subroutines, in syntactic categories,
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## like infix:<+> (addition) or prefix:<!> (bool not)
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## The categories are :
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# - "prefix" : before (like `!` in `!True`).
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# - "postfix" : after (like `++` in `$a++`).
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# - "infix" : in between (like `*` in `4 * 3`).
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# - "circumfix" : around (like `[`-`]` in `[1, 2]`).
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# - "post-circumfix" : around, after another term (like `{`-`}` in `%hash{'key'}`)
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2014-06-29 23:41:57 +04:00
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2014-07-11 00:23:56 +04:00
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## The associativity and precedence list are explained below.
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2014-07-14 00:28:41 +04:00
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# Alright, you're set to go !
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## * Equality Checking
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2014-07-14 00:28:41 +04:00
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# - `==` is numeric comparison
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3 == 4; # False
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3 != 4; # True
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2014-07-14 00:28:41 +04:00
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# - `eq` is string comparison
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'a' eq 'b';
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'a' ne 'b'; # not equal
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'a' !eq 'b'; # same as above
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2014-07-14 00:28:41 +04:00
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# - `eqv` is canonical equivalence
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(1, 2) eqv (1, 3);
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2014-07-14 00:28:41 +04:00
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# - `~~` is smart matching
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# for a complete combinations list, use this table : http://perlcabal.org/syn/S03.html#Smart_matching
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'a' ~~ /a/; # true if matches regexp
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'key' ~~ %hash; # true if key exists in hash
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$arg ~~ &bool-returning-function; # true if the function, passed `$arg` as an argument, returns True
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1 ~~ Int; # "is of type"
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2014-07-14 00:28:41 +04:00
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# - `===` is value identity and uses `.WHICH` on the objects to compare them
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# - `=:=` is container identity and uses `VAR()` on the objects to compare them
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2014-06-29 23:41:57 +04:00
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2014-07-14 00:28:41 +04:00
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# You also, of course, have `<`, `<=`, `>`, `>=`.
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# Their string equivalent are also avaiable : `lt`, `le`, `gt`, `ge`.
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3 > 4;
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## * Range constructors
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3 .. 7; # 3 to 7, both included
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# `^` on either side them exclusive on that side :
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3 ^..^ 7; # 3 to 7, not included (basically `4 .. 6`)
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2014-07-17 01:12:20 +04:00
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# this also works as a shortcut for `0..^N`
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^10; # 0..^10
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2014-07-19 03:49:07 +04:00
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# This also allows us to demonstrate that Perl 6 has lazy arrays, using the Whatever Star :
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2014-07-17 01:12:20 +04:00
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my @array = 1..*; # 1 to Infinite !
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say @array[^10]; # you can pass arrays as subscripts and it'll return an array of results
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# this will print "1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10" (and not run out of memory !)
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2014-07-19 03:49:07 +04:00
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# Note : when reading an infinite list, Perl 6 will "reify" the elements it needs, then keep them in memory
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# They won't be calculated more than once.
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# Warning, though : if you try this example in the REPL and juste put `1..*`,
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# Perl 6 will be forced to try and evaluate the whole array (to print it),
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# so you'll end with an infinite loop.
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2014-06-29 23:41:57 +04:00
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2014-07-14 00:28:41 +04:00
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## * And, Or
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3 && 4; # True. Calls `.Bool` on `3`
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0 || False; # False. Calls `.Bool` on `0`
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2014-07-14 00:28:41 +04:00
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## Short-circuit (and tight) versions of the above
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$a && $b && $c; # returns the first argument that evaluates to False, or the last argument
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$a || $b;
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2014-07-11 00:23:56 +04:00
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2014-07-17 01:12:20 +04:00
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## Sequence operator
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2014-07-19 03:49:07 +04:00
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# The sequence operator is one of Perl 6's most powerful features :
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# it's composed of first, on the left, the list you want Perl 6 to deduce from (and might include a closure),
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# and on the right, a value or the predicate for when to stop, or even Whatever for a lazy infinite list
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my @list = 1, 2, 3 ... 10; # basic deducing
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#my @list = 1, 3, 6 ... 10; # this throws you into an infinite loop, because Perl 6 can't figure out the end
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my @list = 1, 2, 3 ...^ 10; # as with ranges, you can exclude the last element (when the predicate matches)
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my @list = 1, 3, 9 ... * > 30; # you can use a predicate (with the Whatever Star, here)
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my @list = 1, 3, 9 ... { $_ > 30 }; # (equivalent to the above)
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my @primes = 1, 1, *+* ... *; # lazy infinite list of prime numbers, computed using a closure !
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my @primes = 1, 1, -> $a, $b { $a + $b } ... *; # (equivalent to the above)
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say @primes[^10]; #=> 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55
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# Note : as for ranges, once reified, elements aren't re-calculated.
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# That's why `@primes[^100]` will take a long time the first time you print it, then be instant
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## More on Subs !
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# Perl 6 likes functions. So, in Perl 6, functions are very powerful:
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## Multiple Dispatch
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# Perl 6 can decide which variant of a `sub` to call based on the type of the arguments,
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# or on arbitrary preconditions, using `where` :
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# with types
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multi sub sayit(Int $n) { # note the `multi` keyword here
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say "Number: $n";
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}
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multi sayit(Str $s) } # the `sub` is implicit
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say "String: $s";
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}
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sayit("foo"); # prints "String: foo"
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sayit(True); # fails at *compile time* with "calling 'sayit' will never work with arguments of types ..."
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# with arbitrary precondition:
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multi is-big(Int $n where * > 10) { True }
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multi is-big(Int $) { False }
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# you can also name these checks, by creating "subsets":
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subset Even of Int where * %% 2;
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# The last expression of a sub is returned automatically (though you may use the `return` keyword, of course):
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sub next-index($n) {
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$n + 1;
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}
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my $new-n = next-index(3); # $new-n is now 4
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# This is true for everything, except for the looping constructs (due to performance reasons):
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# there's no purpose in building a list if we're just going to discard all the results.
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# If you still want to build one, you can use the `do` prefix: (or the `gather` prefix, which we'll see later)
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sub list-of($n) {
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do for ^$n { # note the use of the range-to prefix operator `^` (`0..^N`)
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$_ # current loop iteration
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}
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}
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my @list3 = list-of(3); #=> (0, 1, 2)
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# We can, for example, add 3 to each value of an array using map :
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my @arrayplus3 = map({ $_ + 3 }, @array); # $_ is the implicit argument (the same as for `given` and `for`)
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# a sub (`sub {}`) has different semantics than a block (`{}` or `-> {}`) :
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# a block doesn't have a function context (though it can have arguments), which means that if you
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# return from it, you're going to return from the parent function, compare:
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sub is-in(@array, $elem) {
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# this will `return` out of `is-in` sub
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# once the condition evaluated to True, the loop won't be run anymore
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map({ return True if $_ == $elem }, @array);
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}
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sub truthy-array(@array) {
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# this will produce an array of `True` and `False` :
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# (you can also say `anon sub` for "anonymous subroutine")
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map(sub { if $_ { return True } else { return False } }, @array); # returns the correct value, even in a `if`
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
# `-> {}` and `{}` are pretty much the same thing, except that the former can take arguments,
|
|
|
|
# and that the latter can be mistaken as a hash by the compiler
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
# You can also use the "whatever star" to create an anonymous function
|
|
|
|
# (it'll stop at the furthest operator in the current expression)
|
|
|
|
my @arrayplus3 = map(*+3, @array); # `*+3` is the same as `{ $_ + 3 }`
|
|
|
|
my @arrayplus3 = map(*+*+3, @array); # also works. Same as `-> $a, $b { $a + $b + 3 }`
|
|
|
|
say ((*+3)/5)(5); # immediatly execute the function Whatever created -- works even in parens !
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
# but if you need to have more than one argument (`$_`) in a block (without wanting to resort to `-> {}`),
|
|
|
|
# you can also use the implicit argument syntax, `$^` :
|
|
|
|
map({ $^a + $^b + 3 }, @array); # same as the above
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
# Note : those are sorted lexicographically. `{ $^b / $^a }` is like `-> $a, b { $ b / $a }`
|
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|
|
2014-07-14 00:28:41 +04:00
|
|
|
### Object Model
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
## Perl 6 has a quite comprehensive object model
|
2014-07-13 22:42:29 +04:00
|
|
|
## You declare a class with the keyword `class`, fields with `has`, methods with `method`
|
|
|
|
## `$.` declares a public field, `$!` declares a private field
|
|
|
|
## (a public field also has `$!`, which is its private interface)
|
|
|
|
|
2014-07-14 00:28:41 +04:00
|
|
|
# (Perl 6's object model ("P6Model") is very flexible, and allows you to dynamically add methods,
|
|
|
|
# change semantics, etc -- This will not be covered here, and you should refer to the Synopsis)
|
|
|
|
|
2014-07-13 22:42:29 +04:00
|
|
|
class A {
|
|
|
|
has $.field;
|
|
|
|
has Int $!private-field = 10;
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
method get-value {
|
|
|
|
$.field + $!private-field + $n;
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
method set-value($n) {
|
|
|
|
# $.field = $n; # This fails, because a public field is actually an immutable container
|
|
|
|
# (even from inside the class)
|
|
|
|
# You either need to use `is rw` on the `has`
|
|
|
|
# (which will make it mutable, even from outside the class)
|
|
|
|
# or you need to use the `$!` version :
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
$!field = $n; # This works, because `$!` is always mutable
|
|
|
|
}
|
2014-07-14 00:28:41 +04:00
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
method !private-method {
|
|
|
|
say "This method is private to the class !";
|
|
|
|
}
|
2014-07-13 22:42:29 +04:00
|
|
|
};
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
# Create a new instance of A with $.field set to 5 :
|
|
|
|
# note : you can't set private-field from here (more later on)
|
|
|
|
my $a = A.new(field => 5);
|
|
|
|
$a.get-value; #=> 18
|
|
|
|
#$a.field = 5; # This fails, because the `has $.field` is lacking the `is rw`
|
|
|
|
|
2014-07-14 00:28:41 +04:00
|
|
|
## Perl 6 also has inheritance (along with multiple inheritance ... Considered a misfeature by many)
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
class A {
|
|
|
|
has $.val;
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
submethod not-inherited {
|
|
|
|
say "This method won't be available on B.";
|
|
|
|
say "This is most useful for BUILD, which we'll see later";
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
method bar { $.val * 5 }
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
class B is A { # inheritance uses `is`
|
|
|
|
method foo {
|
|
|
|
say $.val;
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
method bar { $.val * 10 } # this shadows A's `bar`
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
my B $b .= new(val => 5); # When you use `my T $var`, `$var` starts off with `T` itself in it, so you can call `new` on it
|
|
|
|
# (`.=` is just the compound operator composed of the dot-call and of the assignment operator)
|
|
|
|
#
|
|
|
|
# Also note that `BUILD` (the method called inside `new`) will set parent properties too,
|
|
|
|
# so you can pass `val => 5`
|
|
|
|
# $b.not-inherited; # This won't work, for reasons explained above
|
|
|
|
$b.foo; # prints 5
|
|
|
|
$b.bar; #=> 50, since it calls B's `bar`
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
## Roles are supported too (also called Mixins in other languages)
|
|
|
|
role PrintableVal {
|
|
|
|
has $!counter = 0;
|
|
|
|
method print {
|
|
|
|
say $.val;
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
# you "use" a mixin with "does" :
|
|
|
|
class Item does PrintableVal {
|
|
|
|
has $.val;
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
# When `does`-ed, a `role` literally "mixes in" the class :
|
|
|
|
# the methods and fields are put together, which means a class can access
|
|
|
|
# the private fields/methods of its roles (but not the inverse !) :
|
|
|
|
method access {
|
|
|
|
say $!counter++;
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
# However, this :
|
|
|
|
# method print {}
|
|
|
|
# is an error, since the compiler wouldn't know which `print` to use :
|
|
|
|
# contrarily to inheritance, methods mixed in can't be shadowed - they're put at the same "level"
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
# NOTE : You can use a role as a class (with `is ROLE`). In this case, methods will be shadowed,
|
|
|
|
# since the compiler will consider `ROLE` to be a class
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
|
2014-07-13 22:42:29 +04:00
|
|
|
|
2014-07-14 00:28:41 +04:00
|
|
|
### More operators thingies !
|
2014-07-11 00:23:56 +04:00
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
## Everybody loves operators ! Let's get more of them
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
## The precedence list can be found here : http://perlcabal.org/syn/S03.html#Operator_precedence
|
|
|
|
## But first, we need a little explanation about associativity :
|
|
|
|
|
2014-07-14 00:28:41 +04:00
|
|
|
# - Binary operators:
|
2014-07-11 00:23:56 +04:00
|
|
|
$a ! $b ! $c; # with a left-associative `!`, this is `($a ! $b) ! $c`
|
|
|
|
$a ! $b ! $c; # with a right-associative `!`, this is `$a ! ($b ! $c)`
|
|
|
|
$a ! $b ! $c; # with a non-associative `!`, this is illegal
|
|
|
|
$a ! $b ! $c; # with a chain-associative `!`, this is `($a ! $b) and ($b ! $c)`
|
|
|
|
$a ! $b ! $c; # with a list-associative `!`, this is `infix:<>`
|
|
|
|
|
2014-07-14 00:28:41 +04:00
|
|
|
# - Unary operators:
|
2014-07-11 00:23:56 +04:00
|
|
|
!$a! # with left-associative `!`, this is `(!$a)!`
|
|
|
|
!$a! # with right-associative `!`, this is `!($a!)`
|
|
|
|
!$a! # with non-associative `!`, this is illegal
|
|
|
|
|
2014-07-19 03:49:07 +04:00
|
|
|
## Last part of the operator list :
|
2014-07-11 00:23:56 +04:00
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
## * Sort comparison
|
2014-07-14 00:28:41 +04:00
|
|
|
# They return one value of the `Order` enum : `Less`, `Same` and `More` (which numerify to -1, 0 or +1).
|
2014-07-11 00:23:56 +04:00
|
|
|
1 <=> 4; # sort comparison for numerics
|
|
|
|
'a' leg 'b'; # sort comparison for string
|
|
|
|
$obj eqv $obj2; # sort comparison using eqv semantics
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
## * Generic ordering
|
|
|
|
3 before 4; # True
|
|
|
|
'b' after 'a'; # True
|
|
|
|
|
2014-07-19 03:49:07 +04:00
|
|
|
## * Flip Flop
|
|
|
|
# The flip flop operator (spelled `ff` in Perl 6 and sometimes `..` in other languages such as Perl 5 and Ruby),
|
|
|
|
# is an operator that takes two boolean values (like a predicate) and keep track of their change as internal state.
|
|
|
|
# The flip-flop will return `false` until its left side return true, then return true until its right side return true.
|
|
|
|
# You can also exclude either side (iteration when the left side became true, or the right side became true),
|
|
|
|
# using the `^` like with ranges.
|
|
|
|
# Let's start with an example :
|
|
|
|
for <well met young hero we shall meet later> {
|
|
|
|
if $_ eq 'met' ^ff $_ eq 'meet' { # excludes "met"
|
|
|
|
.say
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
# This will print "young hero we shall meet" (excluding "met"):
|
|
|
|
# the flip-flop will start returning `True` when it first encounters "met"
|
|
|
|
# (but will still return `False` for "met" itself, due to the leading `^` on `ff`),
|
|
|
|
# until it sees "meet", which is when it'll start returning `False`.
|
|
|
|
# A flip-flop can change state as many times as needed:
|
|
|
|
for <test start print this stop you stopped printing start printing again stop not anymore> {
|
|
|
|
.say if $_ eq 'start' ^ff^ $_ eq 'stop'; # exclude both "start" and "stop",
|
|
|
|
# this prints "print this printing again"
|
|
|
|
}
|
2014-06-29 00:59:14 +04:00
|
|
|
```
|