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580 lines
17 KiB
Markdown
580 lines
17 KiB
Markdown
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---
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language: c++
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filename: learncpp.cpp
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contributors:
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- ["Steven Basart", "http://github.com/xksteven"]
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- ["Matt Kline", "https://github.com/mrkline"]
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translators:
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- ["Arnie97", "https://github.com/Arnie97"]
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lang: zh-cn
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---
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C++是一種系統編程語言。用它的發明者,
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[Bjarne Stroustrup的話](http://channel9.msdn.com/Events/Lang-NEXT/Lang-NEXT-2014/Keynote)來說,C++的設計目標是:
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- 成爲「更好的C語言」
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- 支持數據的抽象與封裝
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- 支持面向對象編程
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- 支持泛型編程
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C++提供了對硬件的緊密控制(正如C語言一樣),
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能夠編譯爲機器語言,由處理器直接執行。
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與此同時,它也提供了泛型、異常和類等高層功能。
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雖然C++的語法可能比某些出現較晚的語言更複雜,它仍然得到了人們的青睞——
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功能與速度的平衡使C++成爲了目前應用最廣泛的系統編程語言之一。
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```c++
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////////////////
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// 與C語言的比較
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////////////////
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// C++_幾乎_是C語言的一個超集,它與C語言的基本語法有許多相同之處,
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// 例如變量和函數的聲明,原生數據類型等等。
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// 和C語言一樣,在C++中,你的程序會從main()開始執行,
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// 該函數的返回值應當爲int型,這個返回值會作爲程序的退出狀態值。
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// 不過,大多數的編譯器(gcc,clang等)也接受 void main() 的函數原型。
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// (參見 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exit_status 來獲取更多信息)
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int main(int argc, char** argv)
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{
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// 和C語言一樣,命令行參數通過argc和argv傳遞。
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// argc代表命令行參數的數量,
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// 而argv是一個包含“C語言風格字符串”(char *)的數組,
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// 其中每個字符串代表一個命令行參數的內容,
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// 首個命令行參數是調用該程序時所使用的名稱。
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// 如果你不關心命令行參數的值,argc和argv可以被忽略。
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// 此時,你可以用int main()作爲函數原型。
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// 退出狀態值爲0時,表示程序執行成功
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return 0;
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}
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// 然而,C++和C語言也有一些區別:
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// 在C++中,字符字面量的大小是一個字節。
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sizeof('c') == 1
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// 在C語言中,字符字面量的大小與int相同。
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sizeof('c') == sizeof(10)
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// C++的函數原型與函數定義是嚴格匹配的
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void func(); // 這個函數不能接受任何參數
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// 而在C語言中
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void func(); // 這個函數能接受任意數量的參數
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// 在C++中,用nullptr代替C語言中的NULL
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int* ip = nullptr;
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// C++也可以使用C語言的標準頭文件,
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// 但是需要加上前綴“c”並去掉末尾的“.h”。
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#include <cstdio>
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int main()
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{
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printf("Hello, world!\n");
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return 0;
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}
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///////////
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// 函數重載
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///////////
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// C++支持函數重載,provided each function takes different parameters.
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void print(char const* myString)
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{
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printf("String %s\n", myString);
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}
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void print(int myInt)
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{
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printf("My int is %d", myInt);
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}
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int main()
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{
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print("Hello"); // 解析爲 void print(const char*)
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print(15); // 解析爲 void print(int)
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}
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///////////////////
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// 函數參數的默認值
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///////////////////
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// 你可以爲函數的參數指定默認值,
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// 它們將會在調用者沒有提供相應參數時被使用。
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void doSomethingWithInts(int a = 1, int b = 4)
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{
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// 對兩個參數進行一些操作
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}
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int main()
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{
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doSomethingWithInts(); // a = 1, b = 4
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doSomethingWithInts(20); // a = 20, b = 4
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doSomethingWithInts(20, 5); // a = 20, b = 5
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}
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// 默認參數必須放在所有的常規參數之後。
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void invalidDeclaration(int a = 1, int b) // 這是錯誤的!
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{
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}
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///////////
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// 命名空間
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///////////
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// 命名空間爲變量、函數和其他聲明提供了【separate】的作用域。
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// 命名空間可以嵌套使用。
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namespace First {
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namespace Nested {
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void foo()
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{
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printf("This is First::Nested::foo\n");
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}
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} // end namespace Nested
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} // end namespace First
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namespace Second {
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void foo()
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{
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printf("This is Second::foo\n")
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}
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}
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void foo()
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{
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printf("This is global foo\n");
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}
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int main()
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{
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// 如果沒有特別指定,所有【對象】都使用【取自】"Second"中的【聲明】。
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using namespace Second;
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foo(); // 顯示 "This is Second::foo"
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First::Nested::foo(); // 顯示 "This is First::Nested::foo"
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::foo(); // 顯示 "This is global foo"
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}
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////////////
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// 輸入/輸出
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////////////
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// C++使用“流”來輸入輸出。
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// cin、cout、和cerr分別代表stdin(標準輸入)、stdout(標準輸出)和stderr(標準錯誤)。
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// <<是流的插入運算符,>>是流提取運算符。
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#include <iostream> // Include for I/O streams
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using namespace std; // 輸入輸出流在std命名空間(也就是標準庫)中。
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int main()
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{
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int myInt;
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// 在標準輸出(終端/顯示器)中顯示
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cout << "Enter your favorite number:\n";
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// 從標準輸入(鍵盤)獲得一個值
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cin >> myInt;
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// cout can also be formatted
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cout << "Your favorite number is " << myInt << "\n";
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// 顯示 "Your favorite number is <myInt>"
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cerr << "Used for error messages";
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}
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/////////
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// 字符串
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/////////
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// C++中的字符串是對象,它們有很多成員函數
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#include <string>
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using namespace std; // 字符串也在std命名空間(標準庫)中。
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string myString = "Hello";
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string myOtherString = " World";
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// + 可以用於連接字符串。
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cout << myString + myOtherString; // "Hello World"
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cout << myString + " You"; // "Hello You"
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// C++中的字符串是可變的,具有“值語義”。
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myString.append(" Dog");
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cout << myString; // "Hello Dog"
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/////////////
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// 引用
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/////////////
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// 除了支持C語言中的指針類型以外,C++還提供了_引用_。
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// 引用是一種特殊的指針類型,一旦被定義就不能重新賦值,並且引用不能被設置爲空值。
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// 使用引用時的語法與原變量相同:
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// 也就是說,對引用類型進行解引用時,不需要使用*;
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// 賦值時也不需要用&來取地址。
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using namespace std;
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string foo = "I am foo";
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string bar = "I am bar";
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string& fooRef = foo; // 建立了一個對foo的引用。
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fooRef += ". Hi!"; // 通過引用來修改foo的值
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cout << fooRef; // "I am foo. Hi!"
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// 這句話的並不會改變fooRef的指向,其效果與“foo = bar”相同。
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// 也就是說,在執行這條語句之後,foo == "I am bar"。
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fooRef = bar;
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const string& barRef = bar; // 建立指向bar的【const ref】。
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// 和C語言中一樣,聲明爲常數的值(包括指針和引用)不能被修改。
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barRef += ". Hi!"; // 這是錯誤的,【const ref】不能被修改。
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///////////////////
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// 類與面向對象編程
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///////////////////
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// 有關類的第一個示例
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#include <iostream>
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// 聲明一個類。
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// 類通常在頭文件(.h或.hpp)中聲明。
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class Dog {
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// 成員變量和成員函數默認情況下是私有(private)的。
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std::string name;
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int weight;
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// 在這個標籤之後,所有聲明都是公有(public)的,
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// 直到重新指定“private:”(私有繼承)或“protected:”(保護繼承)爲止
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public:
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// 默認的構造器
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Dog();
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// Member function declarations (implementations to follow)
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// Note that we use std::string here instead of placing
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// using namespace std;
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// above.
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// Never put a "using namespace" statement in a header.
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void setName(const std::string& dogsName);
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void setWeight(int dogsWeight);
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// Functions that do not modify the state of the object
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// should be marked as const.
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// This allows you to call them if given a const reference to the object.
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// Also note the functions must be explicitly declared as _virtual_
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// in order to be overridden in derived classes.
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// Functions are not virtual by default for performance reasons.
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virtual void print() const;
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// 函數也可以在class body內部定義。
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// 這樣定義的函數會自動成爲內聯函數。
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void bark() const { std::cout << name << " barks!\n" }
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// 除了構造器以外,C++還提供了析構器。
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// These are called when an object is deleted or falls out of scope.
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// 這使得如同下文中的RAII這樣的強大範式成爲可能。
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// Destructors must be virtual to allow classes to be derived from this one.
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virtual ~Dog();
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}; // 在類的定義後必須加一個分號
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// 類的成員函數通常在.cpp文件中實現。
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void Dog::Dog()
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{
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std::cout << "A dog has been constructed\n";
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}
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// 對象(例如字符串)應當以引用的形式傳遞,
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// 不需要修改的對象則應當作爲【const ref】。
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void Dog::setName(const std::string& dogsName)
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{
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name = dogsName;
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}
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void Dog::setWeight(int dogsWeight)
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{
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weight = dogsWeight;
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}
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// Notice that "virtual" is only needed in the declaration, not the definition.
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void Dog::print() const
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{
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std::cout << "Dog is " << name << " and weighs " << weight << "kg\n";
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}
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void Dog::~Dog()
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{
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cout << "Goodbye " << name << "\n";
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}
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int main() {
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Dog myDog; // 此時顯示“A dog has been constructed”
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myDog.setName("Barkley");
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myDog.setWeight(10);
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myDog.printDog(); // 顯示“Dog is Barkley and weighs 10 kg”
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return 0;
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} // 顯示“Goodbye Barkley”
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// 繼承:
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// 這個類繼承了Dog類中的公有(public)和保護(protected)對象
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class OwnedDog : public Dog {
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void setOwner(const std::string& dogsOwner)
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// 重寫OwnedDogs類的print方法。
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// 如果你不熟悉子類多態的話,可以參考這個頁面中的概述:
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// http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymorphism_(computer_science)#Subtyping
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// override關鍵字是可選的,它確保你是在重寫基類中的方法。
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void print() const override;
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private:
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std::string owner;
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};
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// 與此同時,在對應的.cpp文件裏:
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void OwnedDog::setOwner(const std::string& dogsOwner)
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{
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owner = dogsOwner;
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}
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void OwnedDog::print() const
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{
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Dog::print(); // 調用基類Dog中的print方法
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// "Dog is <name> and weights <weight>"
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std::cout << "Dog is owned by " << owner << "\n";
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// "Dog is owned by <owner>"
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}
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/////////////////////
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// 初始化與運算符重載
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/////////////////////
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// 在C++中,你可以重載+、-、*、/等運算符的行爲。
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// This is done by defining a function
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// which is called whenever the operator is used.
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#include <iostream>
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using namespace std;
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class Point {
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public:
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// 可以以這樣的方式爲成員變量設置默認值。
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double x = 0;
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double y = 0;
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
// Define a default constructor which does nothing
|
|||
|
// but initialize the Point to the default value (0, 0)
|
|||
|
Point() { };
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
// The following syntax is known as an initialization list
|
|||
|
// and is the proper way to initialize class member values
|
|||
|
Point (double a, double b) :
|
|||
|
x(a),
|
|||
|
y(b)
|
|||
|
{ /* Do nothing except initialize the values */ }
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
// 重載 + 運算符
|
|||
|
Point operator+(const Point& rhs) const;
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
// 重載 += 運算符
|
|||
|
Point& operator+=(const Point& rhs);
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
// 增加 - 和 -= 運算符也是有意義的,這裏不再贅述。
|
|||
|
};
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
Point Point::operator+(const Point& rhs) const
|
|||
|
{
|
|||
|
// Create a new point that is the sum of this one and rhs.
|
|||
|
return Point(x + rhs.x, y + rhs.y);
|
|||
|
}
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
Point& Point::operator+=(const Point& rhs)
|
|||
|
{
|
|||
|
x += rhs.x;
|
|||
|
y += rhs.y;
|
|||
|
return *this;
|
|||
|
}
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
int main () {
|
|||
|
Point up (0,1);
|
|||
|
Point right (1,0);
|
|||
|
// 這裏調用了Point類型的運算符“+”
|
|||
|
// 調用up(Point類型)的“+”方法,並以right作爲函數的參數
|
|||
|
Point result = up + right;
|
|||
|
// 顯示“Result is upright (1,1)”
|
|||
|
cout << "Result is upright (" << result.x << ',' << result.y << ")\n";
|
|||
|
return 0;
|
|||
|
}
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
///////////
|
|||
|
// 異常處理
|
|||
|
///////////
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
// 標準庫中提供了a few exception types
|
|||
|
// (參見http://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/error/exception)
|
|||
|
// but any type can be thrown an as exception
|
|||
|
#include <exception>
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
// All exceptions thrown inside the _try_ block can be caught by subsequent
|
|||
|
// _catch_ handlers.
|
|||
|
try {
|
|||
|
// Do not allocate exceptions on the heap using _new_.
|
|||
|
throw std::exception("A problem occurred");
|
|||
|
}
|
|||
|
// Catch exceptions by const reference if they are objects
|
|||
|
catch (const std::exception& ex)
|
|||
|
{
|
|||
|
std::cout << ex.what();
|
|||
|
// Catches any exception not caught by previous _catch_ blocks
|
|||
|
} catch (...)
|
|||
|
{
|
|||
|
std::cout << "Unknown exception caught";
|
|||
|
throw; // Re-throws the exception
|
|||
|
}
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
///////
|
|||
|
// RAII
|
|||
|
///////
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
// RAII指的是“资源获取就是初始化”(Resource Allocation Is Initialization)。
|
|||
|
// It is often considered the most powerful paradigm in C++,
|
|||
|
// and is the simple concept that a constructor for an object
|
|||
|
// acquires that object's resources and the destructor releases them.
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
// 爲了理解這一範式的用處,讓我們考慮某個函數使用文件句柄時的情況:
|
|||
|
void doSomethingWithAFile(const char* filename)
|
|||
|
{
|
|||
|
// 首先,讓我們假設一切都會順利進行。
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
FILE* fh = fopen(filename, "r"); // 以只讀模式打開文件
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
doSomethingWithTheFile(fh);
|
|||
|
doSomethingElseWithIt(fh);
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
fclose(fh); // 關閉文件句柄
|
|||
|
}
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
// 不幸的是,隨着錯誤處理機制的引入,事情會變得複雜。
|
|||
|
// 假設fopen有可能執行失敗,
|
|||
|
// 而doSomethingWithTheFile和doSomethingElseWithIt會在失敗時返回錯誤代碼。
|
|||
|
// (雖然【Exceptions】是處理錯誤的推薦方式,
|
|||
|
// 但是某些程序員,尤其是有C語言背景的,並不認可【exceptions】的效用)。
|
|||
|
// 現在,我們必須檢查每個函數調用是否成功執行,並在問題發生的時候關閉文件句柄。
|
|||
|
bool doSomethingWithAFile(const char* filename)
|
|||
|
{
|
|||
|
FILE* fh = fopen(filename, "r"); // 以只讀模式打開文件
|
|||
|
if (fh == nullptr) // 當執行失敗是,返回的指針是nullptr
|
|||
|
return false; // 向調用者彙報錯誤
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
// 假設每個函數會在執行失敗時返回false
|
|||
|
if (!doSomethingWithTheFile(fh)) {
|
|||
|
fclose(fh); // Close the file handle so it doesn't leak.
|
|||
|
return false; // 反饋錯誤
|
|||
|
}
|
|||
|
if (!doSomethingElseWithIt(fh)) {
|
|||
|
fclose(fh); // Close the file handle so it doesn't leak.
|
|||
|
return false; // 反饋錯誤
|
|||
|
}
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
fclose(fh); // Close the file handle so it doesn't leak.
|
|||
|
return true; // 指示函數已成功執行
|
|||
|
}
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
// C語言的程序員通常會借助goto語句簡化上面的代碼:
|
|||
|
bool doSomethingWithAFile(const char* filename)
|
|||
|
{
|
|||
|
FILE* fh = fopen(filename, "r");
|
|||
|
if (fh == nullptr)
|
|||
|
return false;
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
if (!doSomethingWithTheFile(fh))
|
|||
|
goto failure;
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
if (!doSomethingElseWithIt(fh))
|
|||
|
goto failure;
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
fclose(fh); // 關閉文件
|
|||
|
return true; // 執行成功
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
failure:
|
|||
|
fclose(fh);
|
|||
|
return false; // 反饋錯誤
|
|||
|
}
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
// If the functions indicate errors using exceptions,
|
|||
|
// things are a little cleaner, but still sub-optimal.
|
|||
|
void doSomethingWithAFile(const char* filename)
|
|||
|
{
|
|||
|
FILE* fh = fopen(filename, "r"); // 以只讀模式打開文件
|
|||
|
if (fh == nullptr)
|
|||
|
throw std::exception("Could not open the file.");
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
try {
|
|||
|
doSomethingWithTheFile(fh);
|
|||
|
doSomethingElseWithIt(fh);
|
|||
|
}
|
|||
|
catch (...) {
|
|||
|
fclose(fh); // 保證出錯的時候文件被正確關閉
|
|||
|
throw; // Then re-throw the exception.
|
|||
|
}
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
fclose(fh); // 關閉文件
|
|||
|
// 所有工作順利完成
|
|||
|
}
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
// Compare this to the use of C++'s file stream class (fstream)
|
|||
|
// fstream利用自己的析構器來關閉文件句柄。
|
|||
|
// Recall from above that destructors are automatically called
|
|||
|
// whenver an object falls out of scope.
|
|||
|
void doSomethingWithAFile(const std::string& filename)
|
|||
|
{
|
|||
|
// ifstream is short for input file stream
|
|||
|
std::ifstream fh(filename); // Open the file
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
// 對文件進行一些操作
|
|||
|
doSomethingWithTheFile(fh);
|
|||
|
doSomethingElseWithIt(fh);
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
} // 文件已經被析構器自動關閉
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
// 與上面幾種方式相比,這種方式有着_明顯_的優勢:
|
|||
|
// 1. 無論發生了什麼情況,資源(此例當中是文件句柄)都會被正確關閉。
|
|||
|
// 只要你正確使用了析構器,就_不會_因爲忘記關閉句柄,造成資源的泄漏。
|
|||
|
// 2. Note that the code is much cleaner.
|
|||
|
// The destructor handles closing the file behind the scenes
|
|||
|
// without you having to worry about it.
|
|||
|
// 3. The code is exception safe.
|
|||
|
// An exception can be thrown anywhere in the function and cleanup
|
|||
|
// will still occur.
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
// All idiomatic C++ code uses RAII extensively for all resources.
|
|||
|
// Additional examples include
|
|||
|
// - Memory using unique_ptr and shared_ptr
|
|||
|
// - Containers - the standard library linked list,
|
|||
|
// vector (i.e. self-resizing array), hash maps, and so on
|
|||
|
// all automatically destroy their contents when they fall out of scope.
|
|||
|
// - Mutexes using lock_guard and unique_lock
|
|||
|
```
|
|||
|
擴展閱讀:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
<http://cppreference.com/w/cpp> 提供了最新的語法參考。
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
可以在 <http://cplusplus.com> 找到一些補充資料。
|