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+---
+language: python
+contributors:
+ - ["Louie Dinh", "http://ldinh.ca"]
+ - ["Amin Bandali", "http://aminbandali.com"]
+ - ["Andre Polykanine", "https://github.com/Oire"]
+ - ["evuez", "http://github.com/evuez"]
+translators:
+ - ["Michael Yeh", "https://github.com/hinet60613"]
+filename: learnpython.py
+---
+
+Python是在1990年代早期由Guido Van Rossum創建的。它是現在最流行的程式語言之一。我愛上Python是因為他極為清晰的語法,甚至可以說它就是可執行的虛擬碼。
+
+非常歡迎各位給我們任何回饋! 你可以在[@louiedinh](http://twitter.com/louiedinh) 或 louiedinh [at] [google's email service]聯絡到我。
+
+註: 本篇文章適用的版本為Python 2.7,但大部分的Python 2.X版本應該都適用。 Python 2.7將會在2020年停止維護,因此建議您可以從Python 3開始學Python。
+Python 3.X可以看這篇[Python 3 教學 (英文)](http://learnxinyminutes.com/docs/python3/).
+
+讓程式碼同時支援Python 2.7和3.X是可以做到的,只要引入
+ [`__future__` imports](https://docs.python.org/2/library/__future__.html) 模組.
+ `__future__` 模組允許你撰寫可以在Python 2上執行的Python 3程式碼,詳細訊息請參考Python 3 教學。
+
+```python
+
+# 單行註解從井字號開始
+
+""" 多行字串可以用三個雙引號
+ 包住,不過通常這種寫法會
+ 被拿來當作多行註解
+"""
+
+####################################################
+## 1. 原始型別與運算元
+####################################################
+
+# 你可以使用數字
+3 # => 3
+
+# 還有四則運算
+1 + 1 # => 2
+8 - 1 # => 7
+10 * 2 # => 20
+35 / 5 # => 7
+
+# 除法比較麻煩,除以整數時會自動捨去小數位。
+5 / 2 # => 2
+
+# 要做精確的除法,我們需要浮點數
+2.0 # 浮點數
+11.0 / 4.0 # => 2.75 精確多了!
+
+# 整數除法的無條件捨去對正數或負數都適用
+5 // 3 # => 1
+5.0 // 3.0 # => 1.0 # 浮點數的整數也適用
+-5 // 3 # => -2
+-5.0 // 3.0 # => -2.0
+
+# 我們可以用除法模組(參考第六節:模組),讓
+# 單一斜線代表普通除法,而非無條件捨去
+from __future__ import division
+11/4 # => 2.75 ...普通除法
+11//4 # => 2 ...無條件捨去
+
+# 取餘數
+7 % 3 # => 1
+
+# 指數 (x的y次方)
+2**4 # => 16
+
+# 括號即先乘除後加減
+(1 + 3) * 2 # => 8
+
+# 布林運算
+# 注意 "and" 和 "or" 的大小寫
+True and False #=> False
+False or True #=> True
+
+# 用整數與布林值做運算
+0 and 2 #=> 0
+-5 or 0 #=> -5
+0 == False #=> True
+2 == True #=> False
+1 == True #=> True
+
+# 用not取反向
+not True # => False
+not False # => True
+
+# 等於判斷是用 ==
+1 == 1 # => True
+2 == 1 # => False
+
+# 不等於判斷是用 !=
+1 != 1 # => False
+2 != 1 # => True
+
+# 更多比較
+1 < 10 # => True
+1 > 10 # => False
+2 <= 2 # => True
+2 >= 2 # => True
+
+# 比較是可以串接的
+1 < 2 < 3 # => True
+2 < 3 < 2 # => False
+
+# 字串用單引號 ' 或雙引號 " 建立
+"This is a string."
+'This is also a string.'
+
+# 字串相加會被串接再一起
+"Hello " + "world!" # => "Hello world!"
+# 不用加號也可以做字串相加
+"Hello " "world!" # => "Hello world!"
+
+# ... 也可以做相乘
+"Hello" * 3 # => "HelloHelloHello"
+
+# 字串可以被視為字元的陣列
+"This is a string"[0] # => 'T'
+
+# 字串的格式化可以用百分之符號 %
+# 儘管在Python 3.1後這個功能被廢棄了,並且在
+# 之後的版本會被移除,但還是可以了解一下
+x = 'apple'
+y = 'lemon'
+z = "The items in the basket are %s and %s" % (x,y)
+
+# 新的格式化方式是使用format函式
+# 這個方式也是較為推薦的
+"{} is a {}".format("This", "placeholder")
+"{0} can be {1}".format("strings", "formatted")
+# 你也可以用關鍵字,如果你不想數你是要用第幾個變數的話
+"{name} wants to eat {food}".format(name="Bob", food="lasagna")
+
+# 無(None) 是一個物件
+None # => None
+
+# 不要用等於符號 "==" 對 無(None)做比較
+# 用 "is"
+"etc" is None # => False
+None is None # => True
+
+# The 'is' operator tests for object identity. This isn't
+# very useful when dealing with primitive values, but is
+# very useful when dealing with objects.
+
+# Any object can be used in a Boolean context.
+# The following values are considered falsey:
+# - None
+# - zero of any numeric type (e.g., 0, 0L, 0.0, 0j)
+# - empty sequences (e.g., '', (), [])
+# - empty containers (e.g., {}, set())
+# - instances of user-defined classes meeting certain conditions
+# see: https://docs.python.org/2/reference/datamodel.html#object.__nonzero__
+#
+# All other values are truthy (using the bool() function on them returns True).
+bool(0) # => False
+bool("") # => False
+
+
+####################################################
+## 2. Variables and Collections
+####################################################
+
+# Python has a print statement
+print "I'm Python. Nice to meet you!" # => I'm Python. Nice to meet you!
+
+# Simple way to get input data from console
+input_string_var = raw_input("Enter some data: ") # Returns the data as a string
+input_var = input("Enter some data: ") # Evaluates the data as python code
+# Warning: Caution is recommended for input() method usage
+# Note: In python 3, input() is deprecated and raw_input() is renamed to input()
+
+# No need to declare variables before assigning to them.
+some_var = 5 # Convention is to use lower_case_with_underscores
+some_var # => 5
+
+# Accessing a previously unassigned variable is an exception.
+# See Control Flow to learn more about exception handling.
+some_other_var # Raises a name error
+
+# if can be used as an expression
+# Equivalent of C's '?:' ternary operator
+"yahoo!" if 3 > 2 else 2 # => "yahoo!"
+
+# Lists store sequences
+li = []
+# You can start with a prefilled list
+other_li = [4, 5, 6]
+
+# Add stuff to the end of a list with append
+li.append(1) # li is now [1]
+li.append(2) # li is now [1, 2]
+li.append(4) # li is now [1, 2, 4]
+li.append(3) # li is now [1, 2, 4, 3]
+# Remove from the end with pop
+li.pop() # => 3 and li is now [1, 2, 4]
+# Let's put it back
+li.append(3) # li is now [1, 2, 4, 3] again.
+
+# Access a list like you would any array
+li[0] # => 1
+# Assign new values to indexes that have already been initialized with =
+li[0] = 42
+li[0] # => 42
+li[0] = 1 # Note: setting it back to the original value
+# Look at the last element
+li[-1] # => 3
+
+# Looking out of bounds is an IndexError
+li[4] # Raises an IndexError
+
+# You can look at ranges with slice syntax.
+# (It's a closed/open range for you mathy types.)
+li[1:3] # => [2, 4]
+# Omit the beginning
+li[2:] # => [4, 3]
+# Omit the end
+li[:3] # => [1, 2, 4]
+# Select every second entry
+li[::2] # =>[1, 4]
+# Reverse a copy of the list
+li[::-1] # => [3, 4, 2, 1]
+# Use any combination of these to make advanced slices
+# li[start:end:step]
+
+# Remove arbitrary elements from a list with "del"
+del li[2] # li is now [1, 2, 3]
+
+# You can add lists
+li + other_li # => [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
+# Note: values for li and for other_li are not modified.
+
+# Concatenate lists with "extend()"
+li.extend(other_li) # Now li is [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
+
+# Remove first occurrence of a value
+li.remove(2) # li is now [1, 3, 4, 5, 6]
+li.remove(2) # Raises a ValueError as 2 is not in the list
+
+# Insert an element at a specific index
+li.insert(1, 2) # li is now [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6] again
+
+# Get the index of the first item found
+li.index(2) # => 1
+li.index(7) # Raises a ValueError as 7 is not in the list
+
+# Check for existence in a list with "in"
+1 in li # => True
+
+# Examine the length with "len()"
+len(li) # => 6
+
+
+# Tuples are like lists but are immutable.
+tup = (1, 2, 3)
+tup[0] # => 1
+tup[0] = 3 # Raises a TypeError
+
+# You can do all those list thingies on tuples too
+len(tup) # => 3
+tup + (4, 5, 6) # => (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6)
+tup[:2] # => (1, 2)
+2 in tup # => True
+
+# You can unpack tuples (or lists) into variables
+a, b, c = (1, 2, 3) # a is now 1, b is now 2 and c is now 3
+d, e, f = 4, 5, 6 # you can leave out the parentheses
+# Tuples are created by default if you leave out the parentheses
+g = 4, 5, 6 # => (4, 5, 6)
+# Now look how easy it is to swap two values
+e, d = d, e # d is now 5 and e is now 4
+
+
+# Dictionaries store mappings
+empty_dict = {}
+# Here is a prefilled dictionary
+filled_dict = {"one": 1, "two": 2, "three": 3}
+
+# Look up values with []
+filled_dict["one"] # => 1
+
+# Get all keys as a list with "keys()"
+filled_dict.keys() # => ["three", "two", "one"]
+# Note - Dictionary key ordering is not guaranteed.
+# Your results might not match this exactly.
+
+# Get all values as a list with "values()"
+filled_dict.values() # => [3, 2, 1]
+# Note - Same as above regarding key ordering.
+
+# Check for existence of keys in a dictionary with "in"
+"one" in filled_dict # => True
+1 in filled_dict # => False
+
+# Looking up a non-existing key is a KeyError
+filled_dict["four"] # KeyError
+
+# Use "get()" method to avoid the KeyError
+filled_dict.get("one") # => 1
+filled_dict.get("four") # => None
+# The get method supports a default argument when the value is missing
+filled_dict.get("one", 4) # => 1
+filled_dict.get("four", 4) # => 4
+# note that filled_dict.get("four") is still => None
+# (get doesn't set the value in the dictionary)
+
+# set the value of a key with a syntax similar to lists
+filled_dict["four"] = 4 # now, filled_dict["four"] => 4
+
+# "setdefault()" inserts into a dictionary only if the given key isn't present
+filled_dict.setdefault("five", 5) # filled_dict["five"] is set to 5
+filled_dict.setdefault("five", 6) # filled_dict["five"] is still 5
+
+
+# Sets store ... well sets (which are like lists but can contain no duplicates)
+empty_set = set()
+# Initialize a "set()" with a bunch of values
+some_set = set([1, 2, 2, 3, 4]) # some_set is now set([1, 2, 3, 4])
+
+# order is not guaranteed, even though it may sometimes look sorted
+another_set = set([4, 3, 2, 2, 1]) # another_set is now set([1, 2, 3, 4])
+
+# Since Python 2.7, {} can be used to declare a set
+filled_set = {1, 2, 2, 3, 4} # => {1, 2, 3, 4}
+
+# Add more items to a set
+filled_set.add(5) # filled_set is now {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
+
+# Do set intersection with &
+other_set = {3, 4, 5, 6}
+filled_set & other_set # => {3, 4, 5}
+
+# Do set union with |
+filled_set | other_set # => {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
+
+# Do set difference with -
+{1, 2, 3, 4} - {2, 3, 5} # => {1, 4}
+
+# Do set symmetric difference with ^
+{1, 2, 3, 4} ^ {2, 3, 5} # => {1, 4, 5}
+
+# Check if set on the left is a superset of set on the right
+{1, 2} >= {1, 2, 3} # => False
+
+# Check if set on the left is a subset of set on the right
+{1, 2} <= {1, 2, 3} # => True
+
+# Check for existence in a set with in
+2 in filled_set # => True
+10 in filled_set # => False
+
+
+####################################################
+## 3. Control Flow
+####################################################
+
+# Let's just make a variable
+some_var = 5
+
+# Here is an if statement. Indentation is significant in python!
+# prints "some_var is smaller than 10"
+if some_var > 10:
+ print "some_var is totally bigger than 10."
+elif some_var < 10: # This elif clause is optional.
+ print "some_var is smaller than 10."
+else: # This is optional too.
+ print "some_var is indeed 10."
+
+
+"""
+For loops iterate over lists
+prints:
+ dog is a mammal
+ cat is a mammal
+ mouse is a mammal
+"""
+for animal in ["dog", "cat", "mouse"]:
+ # You can use {0} to interpolate formatted strings. (See above.)
+ print "{0} is a mammal".format(animal)
+
+"""
+"range(number)" returns a list of numbers
+from zero to the given number
+prints:
+ 0
+ 1
+ 2
+ 3
+"""
+for i in range(4):
+ print i
+
+"""
+"range(lower, upper)" returns a list of numbers
+from the lower number to the upper number
+prints:
+ 4
+ 5
+ 6
+ 7
+"""
+for i in range(4, 8):
+ print i
+
+"""
+While loops go until a condition is no longer met.
+prints:
+ 0
+ 1
+ 2
+ 3
+"""
+x = 0
+while x < 4:
+ print x
+ x += 1 # Shorthand for x = x + 1
+
+# Handle exceptions with a try/except block
+
+# Works on Python 2.6 and up:
+try:
+ # Use "raise" to raise an error
+ raise IndexError("This is an index error")
+except IndexError as e:
+ pass # Pass is just a no-op. Usually you would do recovery here.
+except (TypeError, NameError):
+ pass # Multiple exceptions can be handled together, if required.
+else: # Optional clause to the try/except block. Must follow all except blocks
+ print "All good!" # Runs only if the code in try raises no exceptions
+finally: # Execute under all circumstances
+ print "We can clean up resources here"
+
+# Instead of try/finally to cleanup resources you can use a with statement
+with open("myfile.txt") as f:
+ for line in f:
+ print line
+
+####################################################
+## 4. Functions
+####################################################
+
+# Use "def" to create new functions
+def add(x, y):
+ print "x is {0} and y is {1}".format(x, y)
+ return x + y # Return values with a return statement
+
+# Calling functions with parameters
+add(5, 6) # => prints out "x is 5 and y is 6" and returns 11
+
+# Another way to call functions is with keyword arguments
+add(y=6, x=5) # Keyword arguments can arrive in any order.
+
+
+# You can define functions that take a variable number of
+# positional args, which will be interpreted as a tuple if you do not use the *
+def varargs(*args):
+ return args
+
+varargs(1, 2, 3) # => (1, 2, 3)
+
+
+# You can define functions that take a variable number of
+# keyword args, as well, which will be interpreted as a dict if you do not use **
+def keyword_args(**kwargs):
+ return kwargs
+
+# Let's call it to see what happens
+keyword_args(big="foot", loch="ness") # => {"big": "foot", "loch": "ness"}
+
+
+# You can do both at once, if you like
+def all_the_args(*args, **kwargs):
+ print args
+ print kwargs
+"""
+all_the_args(1, 2, a=3, b=4) prints:
+ (1, 2)
+ {"a": 3, "b": 4}
+"""
+
+# When calling functions, you can do the opposite of args/kwargs!
+# Use * to expand positional args and use ** to expand keyword args.
+args = (1, 2, 3, 4)
+kwargs = {"a": 3, "b": 4}
+all_the_args(*args) # equivalent to foo(1, 2, 3, 4)
+all_the_args(**kwargs) # equivalent to foo(a=3, b=4)
+all_the_args(*args, **kwargs) # equivalent to foo(1, 2, 3, 4, a=3, b=4)
+
+# you can pass args and kwargs along to other functions that take args/kwargs
+# by expanding them with * and ** respectively
+def pass_all_the_args(*args, **kwargs):
+ all_the_args(*args, **kwargs)
+ print varargs(*args)
+ print keyword_args(**kwargs)
+
+# Function Scope
+x = 5
+
+def set_x(num):
+ # Local var x not the same as global variable x
+ x = num # => 43
+ print x # => 43
+
+def set_global_x(num):
+ global x
+ print x # => 5
+ x = num # global var x is now set to 6
+ print x # => 6
+
+set_x(43)
+set_global_x(6)
+
+# Python has first class functions
+def create_adder(x):
+ def adder(y):
+ return x + y
+ return adder
+
+add_10 = create_adder(10)
+add_10(3) # => 13
+
+# There are also anonymous functions
+(lambda x: x > 2)(3) # => True
+(lambda x, y: x ** 2 + y ** 2)(2, 1) # => 5
+
+# There are built-in higher order functions
+map(add_10, [1, 2, 3]) # => [11, 12, 13]
+map(max, [1, 2, 3], [4, 2, 1]) # => [4, 2, 3]
+
+filter(lambda x: x > 5, [3, 4, 5, 6, 7]) # => [6, 7]
+
+# We can use list comprehensions for nice maps and filters
+[add_10(i) for i in [1, 2, 3]] # => [11, 12, 13]
+[x for x in [3, 4, 5, 6, 7] if x > 5] # => [6, 7]
+
+
+####################################################
+## 5. Classes
+####################################################
+
+# We subclass from object to get a class.
+class Human(object):
+
+ # A class attribute. It is shared by all instances of this class
+ species = "H. sapiens"
+
+ # Basic initializer, this is called when this class is instantiated.
+ # Note that the double leading and trailing underscores denote objects
+ # or attributes that are used by python but that live in user-controlled
+ # namespaces. You should not invent such names on your own.
+ def __init__(self, name):
+ # Assign the argument to the instance's name attribute
+ self.name = name
+
+ # Initialize property
+ self.age = 0
+
+
+ # An instance method. All methods take "self" as the first argument
+ def say(self, msg):
+ return "{0}: {1}".format(self.name, msg)
+
+ # A class method is shared among all instances
+ # They are called with the calling class as the first argument
+ @classmethod
+ def get_species(cls):
+ return cls.species
+
+ # A static method is called without a class or instance reference
+ @staticmethod
+ def grunt():
+ return "*grunt*"
+
+ # A property is just like a getter.
+ # It turns the method age() into an read-only attribute
+ # of the same name.
+ @property
+ def age(self):
+ return self._age
+
+ # This allows the property to be set
+ @age.setter
+ def age(self, age):
+ self._age = age
+
+ # This allows the property to be deleted
+ @age.deleter
+ def age(self):
+ del self._age
+
+
+# Instantiate a class
+i = Human(name="Ian")
+print i.say("hi") # prints out "Ian: hi"
+
+j = Human("Joel")
+print j.say("hello") # prints out "Joel: hello"
+
+# Call our class method
+i.get_species() # => "H. sapiens"
+
+# Change the shared attribute
+Human.species = "H. neanderthalensis"
+i.get_species() # => "H. neanderthalensis"
+j.get_species() # => "H. neanderthalensis"
+
+# Call the static method
+Human.grunt() # => "*grunt*"
+
+# Update the property
+i.age = 42
+
+# Get the property
+i.age # => 42
+
+# Delete the property
+del i.age
+i.age # => raises an AttributeError
+
+
+####################################################
+## 6. Modules
+####################################################
+
+# You can import modules
+import math
+print math.sqrt(16) # => 4
+
+# You can get specific functions from a module
+from math import ceil, floor
+print ceil(3.7) # => 4.0
+print floor(3.7) # => 3.0
+
+# You can import all functions from a module.
+# Warning: this is not recommended
+from math import *
+
+# You can shorten module names
+import math as m
+math.sqrt(16) == m.sqrt(16) # => True
+# you can also test that the functions are equivalent
+from math import sqrt
+math.sqrt == m.sqrt == sqrt # => True
+
+# Python modules are just ordinary python files. You
+# can write your own, and import them. The name of the
+# module is the same as the name of the file.
+
+# You can find out which functions and attributes
+# defines a module.
+import math
+dir(math)
+
+
+####################################################
+## 7. Advanced
+####################################################
+
+# Generators help you make lazy code
+def double_numbers(iterable):
+ for i in iterable:
+ yield i + i
+
+# A generator creates values on the fly.
+# Instead of generating and returning all values at once it creates one in each
+# iteration. This means values bigger than 15 wont be processed in
+# double_numbers.
+# Note xrange is a generator that does the same thing range does.
+# Creating a list 1-900000000 would take lot of time and space to be made.
+# xrange creates an xrange generator object instead of creating the entire list
+# like range does.
+# We use a trailing underscore in variable names when we want to use a name that
+# would normally collide with a python keyword
+xrange_ = xrange(1, 900000000)
+
+# will double all numbers until a result >=30 found
+for i in double_numbers(xrange_):
+ print i
+ if i >= 30:
+ break
+
+
+# Decorators
+# in this example beg wraps say
+# Beg will call say. If say_please is True then it will change the returned
+# message
+from functools import wraps
+
+
+def beg(target_function):
+ @wraps(target_function)
+ def wrapper(*args, **kwargs):
+ msg, say_please = target_function(*args, **kwargs)
+ if say_please:
+ return "{} {}".format(msg, "Please! I am poor :(")
+ return msg
+
+ return wrapper
+
+
+@beg
+def say(say_please=False):
+ msg = "Can you buy me a beer?"
+ return msg, say_please
+
+
+print say() # Can you buy me a beer?
+print say(say_please=True) # Can you buy me a beer? Please! I am poor :(
+```
+
+## Ready For More?
+
+### Free Online
+
+* [Automate the Boring Stuff with Python](https://automatetheboringstuff.com)
+* [Learn Python The Hard Way](http://learnpythonthehardway.org/book/)
+* [Dive Into Python](http://www.diveintopython.net/)
+* [The Official Docs](http://docs.python.org/2/)
+* [Hitchhiker's Guide to Python](http://docs.python-guide.org/en/latest/)
+* [Python Module of the Week](http://pymotw.com/2/)
+* [A Crash Course in Python for Scientists](http://nbviewer.ipython.org/5920182)
+* [First Steps With Python](https://realpython.com/learn/python-first-steps/)
+
+### Dead Tree
+
+* [Programming Python](http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0596158106/ref=as_li_qf_sp_asin_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0596158106&linkCode=as2&tag=homebits04-20)
+* [Dive Into Python](http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1441413022/ref=as_li_tf_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=1441413022&linkCode=as2&tag=homebits04-20)
+* [Python Essential Reference](http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0672329786/ref=as_li_tf_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0672329786&linkCode=as2&tag=homebits04-20)