diff --git a/bash.html.markdown b/bash.html.markdown
index 08182c2c..d4f3d424 100644
--- a/bash.html.markdown
+++ b/bash.html.markdown
@@ -51,7 +51,7 @@ echo $Variable
echo "$Variable"
echo '$Variable'
# When you use the variable itself — assign it, export it, or else — you write
-# its name without $. If you want to use variable's value, you should use $.
+# its name without $. If you want to use the variable's value, you should use $.
# Note that ' (single quote) won't expand the variables!
# String substitution in variables
@@ -70,11 +70,11 @@ echo ${Foo:-"DefaultValueIfFooIsMissingOrEmpty"}
# Builtin variables:
# There are some useful builtin variables, like
-echo "Last program return value: $?"
+echo "Last program's return value: $?"
echo "Script's PID: $$"
-echo "Number of arguments: $#"
-echo "Scripts arguments: $@"
-echo "Scripts arguments separated in different variables: $1 $2..."
+echo "Number of arguments passed to script: $#"
+echo "All arguments passed to script: $@"
+echo "Script's arguments separated into different variables: $1 $2..."
# Reading a value from input:
echo "What's your name?"
@@ -108,8 +108,8 @@ fi
# Expressions are denoted with the following format:
echo $(( 10 + 5 ))
-# Unlike other programming languages, bash is a shell — so it works in a context
-# of current directory. You can list files and directories in the current
+# Unlike other programming languages, bash is a shell so it works in the context
+# of a current directory. You can list files and directories in the current
# directory with the ls command:
ls
diff --git a/c++.html.markdown b/c++.html.markdown
index 8a7f5a59..8ee964ca 100644
--- a/c++.html.markdown
+++ b/c++.html.markdown
@@ -5,6 +5,7 @@ contributors:
- ["Steven Basart", "http://github.com/xksteven"]
- ["Matt Kline", "https://github.com/mrkline"]
- ["Geoff Liu", "http://geoffliu.me"]
+ - ["Connor Waters", "http://github.com/connorwaters"]
lang: en
---
@@ -53,11 +54,11 @@ int main(int argc, char** argv)
// However, C++ varies in some of the following ways:
-// In C++, character literals are one byte.
-sizeof('c') == 1
+// In C++, character literals are chars
+sizeof('c') == sizeof(char) == 1
-// In C, character literals are the same size as ints.
-sizeof('c') == sizeof(10)
+// In C, character literals are ints
+sizeof('c') == sizeof(int)
// C++ has strict prototyping
@@ -159,9 +160,9 @@ void foo()
int main()
{
- // Includes all symbols from `namesapce Second` into the current scope. Note
- // that simply `foo()` no longer works, since it is now ambiguous whether
- // we're calling the `foo` in `namespace Second` or the top level.
+ // Includes all symbols from namespace Second into the current scope. Note
+ // that simply foo() no longer works, since it is now ambiguous whether
+ // we're calling the foo in namespace Second or the top level.
using namespace Second;
Second::foo(); // prints "This is Second::foo"
@@ -244,7 +245,13 @@ cout << fooRef; // Prints "I am foo. Hi!"
// Doesn't reassign "fooRef". This is the same as "foo = bar", and
// foo == "I am bar"
// after this line.
+cout << &fooRef << endl; //Prints the address of foo
fooRef = bar;
+cout << &fooRef << endl; //Still prints the address of foo
+cout << fooRef; // Prints "I am bar"
+
+//The address of fooRef remains the same, i.e. it is still referring to foo.
+
const string& barRef = bar; // Create a const reference to bar.
// Like C, const values (and pointers and references) cannot be modified.
@@ -256,7 +263,7 @@ string tempObjectFun() { ... }
string retVal = tempObjectFun();
// What happens in the second line is actually:
-// - a string object is returned from `tempObjectFun`
+// - a string object is returned from tempObjectFun
// - a new string is constructed with the returned object as arugment to the
// constructor
// - the returned object is destroyed
@@ -268,15 +275,15 @@ string retVal = tempObjectFun();
// code:
foo(bar(tempObjectFun()))
-// assuming `foo` and `bar` exist, the object returned from `tempObjectFun` is
-// passed to `bar`, and it is destroyed before `foo` is called.
+// assuming foo and bar exist, the object returned from tempObjectFun is
+// passed to bar, and it is destroyed before foo is called.
// Now back to references. The exception to the "at the end of the enclosing
// expression" rule is if a temporary object is bound to a const reference, in
// which case its life gets extended to the current scope:
void constReferenceTempObjectFun() {
- // `constRef` gets the temporary object, and it is valid until the end of this
+ // constRef gets the temporary object, and it is valid until the end of this
// function.
const string& constRef = tempObjectFun();
...
@@ -301,7 +308,7 @@ basic_string(basic_string&& other);
// Idea being if we are constructing a new string from a temporary object (which
// is going to be destroyed soon anyway), we can have a more efficient
// constructor that "salvages" parts of that temporary string. You will see this
-// concept referred to as the move semantic.
+// concept referred to as "move semantics".
//////////////////////////////////////////
// Classes and object-oriented programming
@@ -349,7 +356,10 @@ public:
// These are called when an object is deleted or falls out of scope.
// This enables powerful paradigms such as RAII
// (see below)
- // Destructors must be virtual to allow classes to be derived from this one.
+ // The destructor should be virtual if a class is to be derived from;
+ // if it is not virtual, then the derived class' destructor will
+ // not be called if the object is destroyed through a base-class reference
+ // or pointer.
virtual ~Dog();
}; // A semicolon must follow the class definition.
@@ -492,9 +502,10 @@ int main () {
/////////////////////
// Templates in C++ are mostly used for generic programming, though they are
-// much more powerful than generics constructs in other languages. It also
-// supports explicit and partial specialization, functional-style type classes,
-// and also it's Turing-complete.
+// much more powerful than generic constructs in other languages. They also
+// support explicit and partial specialization and functional-style type
+// classes; in fact, they are a Turing-complete functional language embedded
+// in C++!
// We start with the kind of generic programming you might be familiar with. To
// define a class or function that takes a type parameter:
@@ -506,7 +517,7 @@ public:
};
// During compilation, the compiler actually generates copies of each template
-// with parameters substituted, and so the full definition of the class must be
+// with parameters substituted, so the full definition of the class must be
// present at each invocation. This is why you will see template classes defined
// entirely in header files.
@@ -520,13 +531,13 @@ intBox.insert(123);
Box > boxOfBox;
boxOfBox.insert(intBox);
-// Up until C++11, you must place a space between the two '>'s, otherwise '>>'
-// will be parsed as the right shift operator.
+// Until C++11, you had to place a space between the two '>'s, otherwise '>>'
+// would be parsed as the right shift operator.
// You will sometimes see
// template
-// instead. The 'class' keyword and 'typename' keyword are _mostly_
-// interchangeable in this case. For full explanation, see
+// instead. The 'class' keyword and 'typename' keywords are _mostly_
+// interchangeable in this case. For the full explanation, see
// http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typename
// (yes, that keyword has its own Wikipedia page).
@@ -582,12 +593,15 @@ try {
// Do not allocate exceptions on the heap using _new_.
throw std::runtime_error("A problem occurred");
}
+
// Catch exceptions by const reference if they are objects
catch (const std::exception& ex)
{
- std::cout << ex.what();
+ std::cout << ex.what();
+}
+
// Catches any exception not caught by previous _catch_ blocks
-} catch (...)
+catch (...)
{
std::cout << "Unknown exception caught";
throw; // Re-throws the exception
@@ -597,8 +611,8 @@ catch (const std::exception& ex)
// RAII
///////
-// RAII stands for Resource Allocation Is Initialization.
-// It is often considered the most powerful paradigm in C++,
+// RAII stands for "Resource Acquisition Is Initialization".
+// It is often considered the most powerful paradigm in C++
// and is the simple concept that a constructor for an object
// acquires that object's resources and the destructor releases them.
@@ -619,9 +633,9 @@ void doSomethingWithAFile(const char* filename)
// Unfortunately, things are quickly complicated by error handling.
// Suppose fopen can fail, and that doSomethingWithTheFile and
// doSomethingElseWithIt return error codes if they fail.
-// (Exceptions are the preferred way of handling failure,
-// but some programmers, especially those with a C background,
-// disagree on the utility of exceptions).
+// (Exceptions are the preferred way of handling failure,
+// but some programmers, especially those with a C background,
+// disagree on the utility of exceptions).
// We now have to check each call for failure and close the file handle
// if a problem occurred.
bool doSomethingWithAFile(const char* filename)
@@ -741,15 +755,17 @@ class FooSub : public Foo {
// 0 == false == NULL (most of the time)!
bool* pt = new bool;
-*pt = 0; // Sets the value points by 'pt' to false.
+*pt = 0; // Sets the value points by 'pt' to false.
pt = 0; // Sets 'pt' to the null pointer. Both lines compile without warnings.
// nullptr is supposed to fix some of that issue:
int* pt2 = new int;
-*pt2 = nullptr; // Doesn't compile
+*pt2 = nullptr; // Doesn't compile
pt2 = nullptr; // Sets pt2 to null.
-// But somehow 'bool' type is an exception (this is to make `if (ptr)` compile).
+// There is an exception made for bools.
+// This is to allow you to test for null pointers with if(!ptr),
+// but as a consequence you can assign nullptr to a bool directly!
*pt = nullptr; // This still compiles, even though '*pt' is a bool!
@@ -776,12 +792,12 @@ vector v;
for (int i = 0; i < 10; ++i)
v.push_back(Foo());
-// Following line sets size of v to 0, but destructors don't get called,
+// Following line sets size of v to 0, but destructors don't get called
// and resources aren't released!
v.empty();
-v.push_back(Foo()); // New value is copied into the first Foo we inserted in the loop.
+v.push_back(Foo()); // New value is copied into the first Foo we inserted
-// Truly destroys all values in v. See section about temporary object for
+// Truly destroys all values in v. See section about temporary objects for
// explanation of why this works.
v.swap(vector());
diff --git a/c.html.markdown b/c.html.markdown
index 8e631de4..db2ac930 100644
--- a/c.html.markdown
+++ b/c.html.markdown
@@ -130,7 +130,9 @@ int main(void) {
// can be declared as well. The size of such an array need not be a compile
// time constant:
printf("Enter the array size: "); // ask the user for an array size
- char buf[0x100];
+ int size;
+ fscanf(stdin, "%d", &size);
+ char buf[size];
fgets(buf, sizeof buf, stdin);
// strtoul parses a string to an unsigned integer
diff --git a/chapel.html.markdown b/chapel.html.markdown
index c8489371..02a96b04 100644
--- a/chapel.html.markdown
+++ b/chapel.html.markdown
@@ -27,7 +27,7 @@ writeln( "There are ", 3, " commas (\",\") in this line of code" );
stdout.writeln( "This goes to standard output, just like plain writeln() does");
stderr.writeln( "This goes to standard error" );
-// Variables don't have to be explicitly typed as long as
+// Variables don't have to be explicitly typed as long as
// the compiler can figure out the type that it will hold.
var myVar = 10; // 10 is an int, so myVar is implicitly an int
myVar = -10;
@@ -65,9 +65,9 @@ const almostPi: real = 22.0/7.0;
param compileTimeConst: int = 16;
// The config modifier allows values to be set at the command line
-// and is much easier than the usual getOpts debacle
+// and is much easier than the usual getOpts debacle
// config vars and consts can be changed through the command line at run time
-config var varCmdLineArg: int = -123;
+config var varCmdLineArg: int = -123;
config const constCmdLineArg: int = 777;
// Set with --VarName=Value or --VarName Value at run time
@@ -119,9 +119,9 @@ a *= thatInt; // Times-equals ( a = a * thatInt; )
b &&= thatBool; // Logical-and-equals ( b = b && thatBool; )
a <<= 3; // Left-bit-shift-equals ( a = a << 10; )
// and many, many more.
-// Unlike other C family languages there are no
+// Unlike other C family languages there are no
// pre/post-increment/decrement operators like
-// ++j, --j, j++, j--
+// ++j, --j, j++, j--
// Swap operator
var old_this = thisInt;
@@ -155,7 +155,7 @@ writeln( (a,b,thisInt,thatInt,thisBool,thatBool) );
// Type aliasing
type chroma = int; // Type of a single hue
-type RGBColor = 3*chroma; // Type representing a full color
+type RGBColor = 3*chroma; // Type representing a full color
var black: RGBColor = ( 0,0,0 );
var white: RGBColor = ( 255, 255, 255 );
@@ -198,7 +198,7 @@ select( inputOption ){
writeln( "Chose 'otherOption'" );
writeln( "Which has a body" );
}
- otherwise {
+ otherwise {
writeln( "Any other Input" );
writeln( "the otherwise case doesn't need a do if the body is one line" );
}
@@ -221,7 +221,7 @@ do{
writeln( jSum );
// For loops are much like those in python in that they iterate over a range.
-// Ranges themselves are types, and can be stuffed into variables
+// Ranges themselves are types, and can be stuffed into variables
// (more about that later)
for i in 1..10 do write( i , ", ") ;
writeln( );
@@ -240,28 +240,28 @@ for x in 1..10 {
}
// Ranges and Domains
-// For-loops and arrays both use ranges and domains to
+// For-loops and arrays both use ranges and domains to
// define an index set that can be iterated over.
// Ranges are single dimensional
-// Domains can be multi-dimensional and can
+// Domains can be multi-dimensional and can
// represent indices of different types as well.
// They are first-class citizen types, and can be assigned into variables
var range1to10: range = 1..10; // 1, 2, 3, ..., 10
var range2to11 = 2..11; // 2, 3, 4, ..., 11
var rangeThistoThat: range = thisInt..thatInt; // using variables
-var rangeEmpty: range = 100..-100 ; // this is valid but contains no indices
+var rangeEmpty: range = 100..-100 ; // this is valid but contains no indices
-// Ranges can be unbounded
-var range1toInf: range(boundedType=BoundedRangeType.boundedLow) = 1.. ;
+// Ranges can be unbounded
+var range1toInf: range(boundedType=BoundedRangeType.boundedLow) = 1.. ;
// 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ...
-// Note: the range(boundedType= ... ) is only
+// Note: the range(boundedType= ... ) is only
// necessary if we explicitly type the variable
var rangeNegInfto1 = ..1; // ..., -4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1
// Ranges can be strided using the 'by' operator.
var range2to10by2: range(stridable=true) = 2..10 by 2; // 2, 4, 6, 8, 10
-// Note: the range(stridable=true) is only
+// Note: the range(stridable=true) is only
// necessary if we explicitly type the variable
// Use by to create a reverse range
@@ -275,9 +275,9 @@ var rangeCountBy: range(stridable=true) = -5..#12 by 2; // -5, -3, -1, 1, 3, 5
writeln( rangeCountBy );
// Can query properties of the range
-// Print the first index, last index, number of indices,
+// Print the first index, last index, number of indices,
// stride, and ask if 2 is include in the range
-writeln( ( rangeCountBy.first, rangeCountBy.last, rangeCountBy.length,
+writeln( ( rangeCountBy.first, rangeCountBy.last, rangeCountBy.length,
rangeCountBy.stride, rangeCountBy.member( 2 ) ) );
for i in rangeCountBy{
@@ -309,7 +309,7 @@ stringSet += "b";
stringSet += "c";
stringSet += "a"; // Redundant add "a"
stringSet -= "c"; // Remove "c"
-writeln( stringSet );
+writeln( stringSet );
// Both ranges and domains can be sliced to produce a range or domain with the
// intersection of indices
@@ -332,13 +332,13 @@ var intArray2: [{1..10}] int; //equivalent
for i in 1..10 do
intArray[i] = -i;
writeln( intArray );
-// We cannot access intArray[0] because it exists outside
+// We cannot access intArray[0] because it exists outside
// of the index set, {1..10}, we defined it to have.
// intArray[11] is illegal for the same reason.
var realDomain: domain(2) = {1..5,1..7};
var realArray: [realDomain] real;
-var realArray2: [1..5,1..7] real; // Equivalent
+var realArray2: [1..5,1..7] real; // Equivalent
var realArray3: [{1..5,1..7}] real; // Equivalent
for i in 1..5 {
@@ -350,8 +350,8 @@ for i in 1..5 {
}
// Arrays have domains as members that we can iterate over
-for idx in realArray.domain { // Again, idx is a 2*int tuple
- realArray[idx] = 1 / realArray[idx[1],idx[2]]; // Access by tuple and list
+for idx in realArray.domain { // Again, idx is a 2*int tuple
+ realArray[idx] = 1 / realArray[idx[1],idx[2]]; // Access by tuple and list
}
writeln( realArray );
@@ -377,7 +377,7 @@ var thatArray : [{0..5}] int;
// Simply assign one to the other.
// This copies thisArray into thatArray, instead of just creating a reference.
// Modifying thisArray does not also modify thatArray.
-thatArray = thisArray;
+thatArray = thisArray;
thatArray[1] = -1;
writeln( (thisArray, thatArray) );
@@ -389,12 +389,12 @@ writeln( (thisArray, thatArray) );
var thisPlusThat = thisArray + thatArray;
writeln( thisPlusThat );
-// Arrays and loops can also be expressions, where loop
+// Arrays and loops can also be expressions, where loop
// body's expression is the result of each iteration.
var arrayFromLoop = for i in 1..10 do i;
writeln( arrayFromLoop );
-// An expression can result in nothing,
+// An expression can result in nothing,
// such as when filtering with an if-expression
var evensOrFives = for i in 1..10 do if (i % 2 == 0 || i % 5 == 0) then i;
@@ -407,7 +407,7 @@ var evensOrFivesAgain = [ i in 1..10 ] if (i % 2 == 0 || i % 5 == 0) then i;
// Or over the values of the array
arrayFromLoop = [ value in arrayFromLoop ] value + 1;
-// Note: this notation can get somewhat tricky. For example:
+// Note: this notation can get somewhat tricky. For example:
// evensOrFives = [ i in 1..10 ] if (i % 2 == 0 || i % 5 == 0) then i;
// would break.
// The reasons for this are explained in depth when discussing zipped iterators.
@@ -431,7 +431,7 @@ proc addThree( n ) {
doublePrint( addThree( fibonacci( 20 ) ) );
// Can also take 'unlimited' number of parameters
-proc maxOf( x ...?k ) {
+proc maxOf( x ...?k ) {
// x refers to a tuple of one type, with k elements
var maximum = x[1];
for i in 2..k do maximum = if (maximum < x[i]) then x[i] else maximum;
@@ -439,7 +439,7 @@ proc maxOf( x ...?k ) {
}
writeln( maxOf( 1, -10, 189, -9071982, 5, 17, 20001, 42 ) );
-// The ? operator is called the query operator, and is used to take
+// The ? operator is called the query operator, and is used to take
// undetermined values (like tuple or array sizes, and generic types).
// Taking arrays as parameters.
@@ -463,7 +463,7 @@ writeln( defaultsProc( x=11 ) );
writeln( defaultsProc( x=12, y=5.432 ) );
writeln( defaultsProc( y=9.876, x=13 ) );
-// Intent modifiers on the arguments convey how
+// Intent modifiers on the arguments convey how
// those arguments are passed to the procedure
// in: copy arg in, but not out
// out: copy arg out, but not in
@@ -489,18 +489,18 @@ writeln( "Outside After: ", (inVar, outVar, inoutVar, refVar) );
// Similarly we can define intents on the return type
// refElement returns a reference to an element of array
proc refElement( array : [?D] ?T, idx ) ref : T {
- return array[ idx ]; // returns a reference to
+ return array[ idx ]; // returns a reference to
}
var myChangingArray : [1..5] int = [1,2,3,4,5];
writeln( myChangingArray );
-// Store reference to element in ref variable
-ref refToElem = refElement( myChangingArray, 5 );
+// Store reference to element in ref variable
+ref refToElem = refElement( myChangingArray, 5 );
writeln( refToElem );
refToElem = -2; // modify reference which modifies actual value in array
writeln( refToElem );
writeln( myChangingArray );
-// This makes more practical sense for class methods where references to
+// This makes more practical sense for class methods where references to
// elements in a data-structure are returned via a method or iterator
// We can query the type of arguments to generic procedures
@@ -520,7 +520,7 @@ genericProc( 1.0+2.0i, 3.0+4.0i );
// We can also enforce a form of polymorphism with the 'where' clause
// This allows the compiler to decide which function to use.
-// Note: that means that all information needs to be known at compile-time.
+// Note: that means that all information needs to be known at compile-time.
// The param modifier on the arg is used to enforce this constraint.
proc whereProc( param N : int ): void
where ( N > 0 ) {
@@ -534,7 +534,7 @@ proc whereProc( param N : int ): void
whereProc( 10 );
whereProc( -1 );
-// whereProc( 0 ) would result in a compiler error because there
+// whereProc( 0 ) would result in a compiler error because there
// are no functions that satisfy the where clause's condition.
// We could have defined a whereProc without a where clause that would then have
// served as a catch all for all the other cases (of which there is only one).
@@ -543,7 +543,7 @@ whereProc( -1 );
// We can define the unary operators:
// + - ! ~
// and the binary operators:
-// + - * / % ** == <= >= < > << >> & | ˆ by
+// + - * / % ** == <= >= < > << >> & | ˆ by
// += -= *= /= %= **= &= |= ˆ= <<= >>= <=>
// Boolean exclusive or operator
@@ -569,14 +569,14 @@ Note: You could break everything if you get careless with your overloads.
This here will break everything. Don't do it.
proc +( left: int, right: int ): int{
return left - right;
-}
+}
*/
-// Iterators are a sisters to the procedure, and almost
+// Iterators are a sisters to the procedure, and almost
// everything about procedures also applies to iterators
-// However, instead of returning a single value,
+// However, instead of returning a single value,
// iterators yield many values to a loop.
-// This is useful when a complicated set or order of iterations is needed but
+// This is useful when a complicated set or order of iterations is needed but
// allows the code defining the iterations to be separate from the loop body.
iter oddsThenEvens( N: int ): int {
for i in 1..N by 2 do
@@ -601,15 +601,15 @@ for i in absolutelyNothing( 10 ){
writeln( "Woa there! absolutelyNothing yielded ", i );
}
-// We can zipper together two or more iterators (who have the same number
-// of iterations) using zip() to create a single zipped iterator, where each
-// iteration of the zipped iterator yields a tuple of one value yielded
+// We can zipper together two or more iterators (who have the same number
+// of iterations) using zip() to create a single zipped iterator, where each
+// iteration of the zipped iterator yields a tuple of one value yielded
// from each iterator.
// Ranges have implicit iterators
-for (positive, negative) in zip( 1..5, -5..-1) do
+for (positive, negative) in zip( 1..5, -5..-1) do
writeln( (positive, negative) );
-// Zipper iteration is quite important in the assignment of arrays,
+// Zipper iteration is quite important in the assignment of arrays,
// slices of arrays, and array/loop expressions.
var fromThatArray : [1..#5] int = [1,2,3,4,5];
var toThisArray : [100..#5] int;
@@ -629,10 +629,10 @@ for (i, j) in zip( toThisArray.domain, -100..#5 ){
}
writeln( toThisArray );
-// This is all very important in undestanding why the statement
+// This is all very important in undestanding why the statement
// var iterArray : [1..10] int = [ i in 1..10 ] if ( i % 2 == 1 ) then j;
// exhibits a runtime error.
-// Even though the domain of the array and the loop-expression are
+// Even though the domain of the array and the loop-expression are
// the same size, the body of the expression can be though of as an iterator.
// Because iterators can yield nothing, that iterator yields a different number
// of things than the domain of the array or loop, which is not allowed.
@@ -641,8 +641,8 @@ writeln( toThisArray );
// They currently lack privatization
class MyClass {
// Member variables
- var memberInt : int;
- var memberBool : bool = true;
+ var memberInt : int;
+ var memberBool : bool = true;
// Classes have default constructors that don't need to be coded (see below)
// Our explicitly defined constructor
@@ -659,28 +659,28 @@ class MyClass {
proc setMemberInt( val: int ){
this.memberInt = val;
}
-
+
proc setMemberBool( val: bool ){
this.memberBool = val;
}
- proc getMemberInt( ): int{
+ proc getMemberInt( ): int{
return this.memberInt;
}
proc getMemberBool( ): bool {
return this.memberBool;
}
-
+
}
-
+
// Construct using default constructor, using default values
var myObject = new MyClass( 10 );
myObject = new MyClass( memberInt = 10 ); // Equivalent
writeln( myObject.getMemberInt( ) );
// ... using our values
var myDiffObject = new MyClass( -1, true );
- myDiffObject = new MyClass( memberInt = -1,
+ myDiffObject = new MyClass( memberInt = -1,
memberBool = true ); // Equivalent
writeln( myDiffObject );
@@ -689,7 +689,7 @@ var myOtherObject = new MyClass( 1.95 );
myOtherObject = new MyClass( val = 1.95 ); // Equivalent
writeln( myOtherObject.getMemberInt( ) );
-// We can define an operator on our class as well but
+// We can define an operator on our class as well but
// the definition has to be outside the class definition
proc +( A : MyClass, B : MyClass) : MyClass {
return new MyClass( memberInt = A.getMemberInt( ) + B.getMemberInt( ),
@@ -715,46 +715,46 @@ class GenericClass {
type classType;
var classDomain: domain(1);
var classArray: [classDomain] classType;
-
+
// Explicit constructor
proc GenericClass( type classType, elements : int ){
this.classDomain = {1..#elements};
}
-
+
// Copy constructor
- // Note: We still have to put the type as an argument, but we can
+ // Note: We still have to put the type as an argument, but we can
// default to the type of the other object using the query (?) operator
// Further, we can take advantage of this to allow our copy constructor
// to copy classes of different types and cast on the fly
- proc GenericClass( other : GenericClass(?otherType),
+ proc GenericClass( other : GenericClass(?otherType),
type classType = otherType ) {
this.classDomain = other.classDomain;
// Copy and cast
- for idx in this.classDomain do this[ idx ] = other[ idx ] : classType;
+ for idx in this.classDomain do this[ idx ] = other[ idx ] : classType;
}
-
- // Define bracket notation on a GenericClass
+
+ // Define bracket notation on a GenericClass
// object so it can behave like a normal array
// i.e. objVar[ i ] or objVar( i )
proc this( i : int ) ref : classType {
return this.classArray[ i ];
}
-
- // Define an implicit iterator for the class
+
+ // Define an implicit iterator for the class
// to yield values from the array to a loop
// i.e. for i in objVar do ....
iter these( ) ref : classType {
for i in this.classDomain do
yield this[i];
}
-
+
}
var realList = new GenericClass( real, 10 );
-// We can assign to the member array of the object using the bracket
+// We can assign to the member array of the object using the bracket
// notation that we defined ( proc this( i: int ){ ... } )
for i in realList.classDomain do realList[i] = i + 1.0;
-// We can iterate over the values in our list with the iterator
+// We can iterate over the values in our list with the iterator
// we defined ( iter these( ){ ... } )
for value in realList do write( value, ", " );
writeln( );
@@ -777,23 +777,23 @@ writeln( );
module OurModule {
// We can use modules inside of other modules.
use Time; // Time is one of the standard modules.
-
+
// We'll use this procedure in the parallelism section.
proc countdown( seconds: int ){
for i in 1..seconds by -1 {
writeln( i );
sleep( 1 );
}
- }
-
- // Submodules of OurModule
+ }
+
+ // Submodules of OurModule
// It is possible to create arbitrarily deep module nests.
module ChildModule {
proc foo(){
writeln( "ChildModule.foo()");
}
}
-
+
module SiblingModule {
proc foo(){
writeln( "SiblingModule.foo()" );
@@ -806,7 +806,7 @@ module OurModule {
use OurModule;
// At this point we have not used ChildModule or SiblingModule so their symbols
-// (i.e. foo ) are not available to us.
+// (i.e. foo ) are not available to us.
// However, the module names are, and we can explicitly call foo() through them.
SiblingModule.foo(); // Calls SiblingModule.foo()
@@ -821,13 +821,13 @@ foo(); // Less explicit call on ChildModule.foo()
proc main(){
// Parallelism
- // In other languages, parallelism is typically done with
+ // In other languages, parallelism is typically done with
// complicated libraries and strange class structure hierarchies.
// Chapel has it baked right into the language.
- // A begin statement will spin the body of that statement off
+ // A begin statement will spin the body of that statement off
// into one new task.
- // A sync statement will ensure that the progress of the main
+ // A sync statement will ensure that the progress of the main
// task will not progress until the children have synced back up.
sync {
begin { // Start of new task's body
@@ -848,7 +848,7 @@ proc main(){
printFibb( 20 ); // new task
printFibb( 10 ); // new task
printFibb( 5 ); // new task
- {
+ {
// This is a nested statement body and thus is a single statement
// to the parent statement and is executed by a single task
writeln( "this gets" );
@@ -867,26 +867,26 @@ proc main(){
// NOTE! coforall should be used only for creating tasks!
// Using it to iterating over a structure is very a bad idea!
- // forall loops are another parallel loop, but only create a smaller number
+ // forall loops are another parallel loop, but only create a smaller number
// of tasks, specifically --dataParTasksPerLocale=number of task
forall i in 1..100 {
write( i, ", ");
}
writeln( );
- // Here we see that there are sections that are in order, followed by
+ // Here we see that there are sections that are in order, followed by
// a section that would not follow ( e.g. 1, 2, 3, 7, 8, 9, 4, 5, 6, ).
// This is because each task is taking on a chunk of the range 1..10
// (1..3, 4..6, or 7..9) doing that chunk serially, but each task happens
// in parallel.
// Your results may depend on your machine and configuration
- // For both the forall and coforall loops, the execution of the
+ // For both the forall and coforall loops, the execution of the
// parent task will not continue until all the children sync up.
// forall loops are particularly useful for parallel iteration over arrays.
// Lets run an experiment to see how much faster a parallel loop is
use Time; // Import the Time module to use Timer objects
- var timer: Timer;
+ var timer: Timer;
var myBigArray: [{1..4000,1..4000}] real; // Large array we will write into
// Serial Experiment
@@ -906,7 +906,7 @@ proc main(){
timer.stop( ); // Stop timer
writeln( "Parallel: ", timer.elapsed( ) ); // Print elapsed time
timer.clear( );
- // You may have noticed that (depending on how many cores you have)
+ // You may have noticed that (depending on how many cores you have)
// that the parallel loop went faster than the serial loop
// The bracket style loop-expression described
@@ -926,15 +926,15 @@ proc main(){
writeln( uranium.read() );
var replaceWith = 239;
- var was = uranium.exchange( replaceWith );
+ var was = uranium.exchange( replaceWith );
writeln( "uranium was ", was, " but is now ", replaceWith );
var isEqualTo = 235;
if ( uranium.compareExchange( isEqualTo, replaceWith ) ) {
- writeln( "uranium was equal to ", isEqualTo,
+ writeln( "uranium was equal to ", isEqualTo,
" so replaced value with ", replaceWith );
} else {
- writeln( "uranium was not equal to ", isEqualTo,
+ writeln( "uranium was not equal to ", isEqualTo,
" so value stays the same... whatever it was" );
}
@@ -960,13 +960,13 @@ proc main(){
begin { // Reader task
writeln( "Reader: waiting to read." );
var read_sync = someSyncVar$;
- writeln( "value is ", read_sync );
+ writeln( "Reader: value is ", read_sync );
}
begin { // Writer task
writeln( "Writer: will write in..." );
countdown( 3 );
- someSyncVar$ = 123;
+ someSyncVar$ = 123;
}
}
@@ -989,14 +989,14 @@ proc main(){
}
}
- // Heres an example of using atomics and a synch variable to create a
+ // Heres an example of using atomics and a synch variable to create a
// count-down mutex (also known as a multiplexer)
var count: atomic int; // our counter
var lock$: sync bool; // the mutex lock
count.write( 2 ); // Only let two tasks in at a time.
lock$.writeXF( true ); // Set lock$ to full (unlocked)
- // Note: The value doesnt actually matter, just the state
+ // Note: The value doesnt actually matter, just the state
// (full:unlocked / empty:locked)
// Also, writeXF() fills (F) the sync var regardless of its state (X)
@@ -1005,10 +1005,10 @@ proc main(){
do{
lock$; // Read lock$ (wait)
}while ( count.read() < 1 ); // Keep waiting until a spot opens up
-
+
count.sub(1); // decrement the counter
lock$.writeXF( true ); // Set lock$ to full (signal)
-
+
// Actual 'work'
writeln( "Task #", task, " doing work." );
sleep( 2 );
@@ -1027,13 +1027,13 @@ proc main(){
// 'maxloc' gives max value and index of the max value
// Note: We have to zip the array and domain together with the zip iterator
- var (theMaxValue, idxOfMax) = maxloc reduce zip(listOfValues,
+ var (theMaxValue, idxOfMax) = maxloc reduce zip(listOfValues,
listOfValues.domain);
-
+
writeln( (sumOfValues, maxValue, idxOfMax, listOfValues[ idxOfMax ] ) );
// Scans apply the operation incrementally and return an array of the
- // value of the operation at that index as it progressed through the
+ // value of the operation at that index as it progressed through the
// array from array.domain.low to array.domain.high
var runningSumOfValues = + scan listOfValues;
var maxScan = max scan listOfValues;
@@ -1046,14 +1046,14 @@ Who is this tutorial for?
-------------------------
This tutorial is for people who want to learn the ropes of chapel without having to hear about what fiber mixture the ropes are, or how they were braided, or how the braid configurations differ between one another.
-It won't teach you how to develop amazingly performant code, and it's not exhaustive.
+It won't teach you how to develop amazingly performant code, and it's not exhaustive.
Refer to the [language specification](http://chapel.cray.com/language.html) and the [module documentation](http://chapel.cray.com/docs/latest/) for more details.
Occasionally check back here and on the [Chapel site](http://chapel.cray.com) to see if more topics have been added or more tutorials created.
### What this tutorial is lacking:
- * Exposition of the standard modules
+ * Exposition of the [standard modules](http://chapel.cray.com/docs/latest/modules/modules.html)
* Multiple Locales (distributed memory system)
* Records
* Parallel iterators
@@ -1061,11 +1061,11 @@ Occasionally check back here and on the [Chapel site](http://chapel.cray.com) to
Your input, questions, and discoveries are important to the developers!
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
-The Chapel language is still in-development (version 1.11.0), so there are occasional hiccups with performance and language features.
+The Chapel language is still in-development (version 1.12.0), so there are occasional hiccups with performance and language features.
The more information you give the Chapel development team about issues you encounter or features you would like to see, the better the language becomes.
Feel free to email the team and other developers through the [sourceforge email lists](https://sourceforge.net/p/chapel/mailman).
-If you're really interested in the development of the compiler or contributing to the project,
+If you're really interested in the development of the compiler or contributing to the project,
[check out the master Github repository](https://github.com/chapel-lang/chapel).
It is under the [Apache 2.0 License](http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0).
@@ -1074,14 +1074,14 @@ Installing the Compiler
Chapel can be built and installed on your average 'nix machine (and cygwin).
[Download the latest release version](https://github.com/chapel-lang/chapel/releases/)
-and its as easy as
+and it's as easy as
- 1. `tar -xvf chapel-1.11.0.tar.gz`
- 2. `cd chapel-1.11.0`
+ 1. `tar -xvf chapel-1.12.0.tar.gz`
+ 2. `cd chapel-1.12.0`
3. `make`
4. `source util/setchplenv.bash # or .sh or .csh or .fish`
-You will need to `source util/setchplenv.EXT` from within the Chapel directory (`$CHPL_HOME`) every time your terminal starts so its suggested that you drop that command in a script that will get executed on startup (like .bashrc).
+You will need to `source util/setchplenv.EXT` from within the Chapel directory (`$CHPL_HOME`) every time your terminal starts so it's suggested that you drop that command in a script that will get executed on startup (like .bashrc).
Chapel is easily installed with Brew for OS X
@@ -1100,4 +1100,4 @@ Notable arguments:
* `--fast`: enables a number of optimizations and disables array bounds checks. Should only enable when application is stable.
* `--set =`: set config param `` to `` at compile-time.
* `--main-module `: use the main() procedure found in the module `` as the executable's main.
- * `--module-dir `: includes `` in the module search path.
\ No newline at end of file
+ * `--module-dir `: includes `` in the module search path.
diff --git a/common-lisp.html.markdown b/common-lisp.html.markdown
index f9f64d68..e0597e94 100644
--- a/common-lisp.html.markdown
+++ b/common-lisp.html.markdown
@@ -175,7 +175,8 @@ nil ; for false - and the empty list
:age 5))
*rover* ; => #S(DOG :NAME "rover" :BREED "collie" :AGE 5)
-(dog-p *rover*) ; => t ;; ewww)
+(dog-p *rover*) ; => true #| -p signifies "predicate". It's used to
+ check if *rover* is an instance of dog. |#
(dog-name *rover*) ; => "rover"
;; Dog-p, make-dog, and dog-name are all created by defstruct!
diff --git a/csharp.html.markdown b/csharp.html.markdown
index 479b7f01..222ba0d2 100644
--- a/csharp.html.markdown
+++ b/csharp.html.markdown
@@ -236,7 +236,8 @@ on a new line! ""Wow!"", the masses cried";
// Ternary operators
// A simple if/else can be written as follows
// ? :
- string isTrue = (true) ? "True" : "False";
+ int toCompare = 17;
+ string isTrue = toCompare == 17 ? "True" : "False";
// While loop
int fooWhile = 0;
diff --git a/css.html.markdown b/css.html.markdown
index 7224d80a..e217906f 100644
--- a/css.html.markdown
+++ b/css.html.markdown
@@ -4,6 +4,7 @@ contributors:
- ["Mohammad Valipour", "https://github.com/mvalipour"]
- ["Marco Scannadinari", "https://github.com/marcoms"]
- ["Geoffrey Liu", "https://github.com/g-liu"]
+ - ["Connor Shea", "https://github.com/connorshea"]
filename: learncss.css
---
@@ -238,10 +239,13 @@ of what you use in CSS with your target browsers.
[QuirksMode CSS](http://www.quirksmode.org/css/) is one of the best sources for this.
-To run a quick compatibility check, [CanIUse](http://caniuse.com) is a great resource.
+To run a quick compatibility check, [Can I Use...](http://caniuse.com) is a great resource.
## Further Reading
+* [Mozilla Developer Network's CSS documentation](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS)
+* [Codrops' CSS Reference](http://tympanus.net/codrops/css_reference/)
* [Understanding Style Precedence in CSS: Specificity, Inheritance, and the Cascade](http://www.vanseodesign.com/css/css-specificity-inheritance-cascaade/)
* [QuirksMode CSS](http://www.quirksmode.org/css/)
* [Z-Index - The stacking context](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/Guide/CSS/Understanding_z_index/The_stacking_context)
+* [SCSS](http://sass-lang.com/) and [LESS](http://lesscss.org/) for CSS pre-processing
diff --git a/de-de/csharp-de.html.markdown b/de-de/csharp-de.html.markdown
index dc77dda0..8ad7d71f 100644
--- a/de-de/csharp-de.html.markdown
+++ b/de-de/csharp-de.html.markdown
@@ -248,7 +248,8 @@ zur nächsten Zeile, ""Wahnsinn!"", die Massen waren kaum zu bändigen";
// Ternärer Operator
// Anstatt eines einfachen if/else lässt sich auch folgendes schreiben:
// ? :
- string isTrue = true ? "Ja" : "Nein";
+ int zumVergleich = 17;
+ string isTrue = zumVergleich == 17 ? "Ja" : "Nein";
// while-Schleife
int fooWhile = 0;
@@ -886,4 +887,4 @@ zur nächsten Zeile, ""Wahnsinn!"", die Massen waren kaum zu bändigen";
* [ASP.NET Web Forms Tutorials](http://www.asp.net/web-forms/tutorials)
* [Windows Forms Programming in C#](http://www.amazon.com/Windows-Forms-Programming-Chris-Sells/dp/0321116208)
-[C# Coding Conventions](http://msdn.microsoft.com/de-de/library/vstudio/ff926074.aspx)
\ No newline at end of file
+[C# Coding Conventions](http://msdn.microsoft.com/de-de/library/vstudio/ff926074.aspx)
diff --git a/de-de/git-de.html.markdown b/de-de/git-de.html.markdown
index c7b6ad86..43939129 100644
--- a/de-de/git-de.html.markdown
+++ b/de-de/git-de.html.markdown
@@ -48,7 +48,7 @@ Ein Repository besteht in Git aus dem .git-Verzeichnis und dem Arbeitsverzeichni
### .git-Verzeichnis (Teil des Repositorys)
-Das .git-Verzeichnis enth? alle Einstellung, Logs, Branches, den HEAD und mehr.
+Das .git-Verzeichnis enthält alle Einstellung, Logs, Branches, den HEAD und mehr.
[Ausführliche Übersicht](http://gitready.com/advanced/2009/03/23/whats-inside-your-git-directory.html)
### Arbeitsverzeichnis (Teil des Repositorys)
diff --git a/de-de/go-de.html.markdown b/de-de/go-de.html.markdown
index 83d59c8b..765372e0 100644
--- a/de-de/go-de.html.markdown
+++ b/de-de/go-de.html.markdown
@@ -312,7 +312,7 @@ Dokumentation lesen.
Auch zu empfehlen ist die Spezifikation von Go, die nach heutigen Standards sehr
kurz und auch gut verständlich formuliert ist. Auf der Leseliste von Go-Neulingen
ist außerdem der Quelltext der [Go standard Bibliothek](http://golang.org/src/pkg/).
-Gut documentiert, demonstriert sie leicht zu verstehendes und im idiomatischen Stil
+Gut dokumentiert, demonstriert sie leicht zu verstehendes und im idiomatischen Stil
verfasstes Go. Erreichbar ist der Quelltext auch durch das Klicken der Funktionsnamen
in der [offiziellen Dokumentation von Go](http://golang.org/pkg/).
diff --git a/de-de/javascript-de.html.markdown b/de-de/javascript-de.html.markdown
index a295c1c2..f3917506 100644
--- a/de-de/javascript-de.html.markdown
+++ b/de-de/javascript-de.html.markdown
@@ -479,9 +479,6 @@ myNumber === myNumberObj; // = false
if (0){
// Dieser Teil wird nicht ausgeführt, weil 0 'falsy' ist.
}
-if (Number(0)){
- // Dieser Teil des Codes wird ausgeführt, weil Number(0) zu wahr evaluiert.
-}
// Das Wrapper-Objekt und die regulären, eingebauten Typen, teilen sich einen
// Prototyp; so ist es möglich zum Beispiel einem String weitere Funktionen
diff --git a/erlang.html.markdown b/erlang.html.markdown
index 8b67a76a..4e2f1d84 100644
--- a/erlang.html.markdown
+++ b/erlang.html.markdown
@@ -25,6 +25,7 @@ filename: learnerlang.erl
%% 1. Variables and pattern matching.
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
+% In Erlang new variables are bound with an `=` statement.
Num = 42. % All variable names must start with an uppercase letter.
% Erlang has single-assignment variables; if you try to assign a different
@@ -32,9 +33,11 @@ Num = 42. % All variable names must start with an uppercase letter.
Num = 43. % ** exception error: no match of right hand side value 43
% In most languages, `=` denotes an assignment statement. In Erlang, however,
-% `=` denotes a pattern-matching operation. `Lhs = Rhs` really means this:
-% evaluate the right side (`Rhs`), and then match the result against the
-% pattern on the left side (`Lhs`).
+% `=` denotes a pattern-matching operation. When an empty variable is used on the
+% left hand side of the `=` operator to is bound (assigned), but when a bound
+% variable is used on the left hand side the following behaviour is observed.
+% `Lhs = Rhs` really means this: evaluate the right side (`Rhs`), and then
+% match the result against the pattern on the left side (`Lhs`).
Num = 7 * 6.
% Floating-point number.
@@ -299,6 +302,39 @@ CalculateArea ! {circle, 2}. % 12.56000000000000049738
% The shell is also a process; you can use `self` to get the current pid.
self(). % <0.41.0>
+%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
+%% 5. Testing with EUnit
+%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
+
+% Unit tests can be written using EUnits's test generators and assert macros
+-module(fib).
+-export([fib/1]).
+-include_lib("eunit/include/eunit.hrl").
+
+fib(0) -> 1;
+fib(1) -> 1;
+fib(N) when N > 1 -> fib(N-1) + fib(N-2).
+
+fib_test_() ->
+ [?_assert(fib(0) =:= 1),
+ ?_assert(fib(1) =:= 1),
+ ?_assert(fib(2) =:= 2),
+ ?_assert(fib(3) =:= 3),
+ ?_assert(fib(4) =:= 5),
+ ?_assert(fib(5) =:= 8),
+ ?_assertException(error, function_clause, fib(-1)),
+ ?_assert(fib(31) =:= 2178309)
+ ].
+
+% EUnit will automatically export to a test() function to allow running the tests
+% in the erlang shell
+fib:test()
+
+% The popular erlang build tool Rebar is also compatible with EUnit
+% ```
+% rebar eunit
+% ```
+
```
## References
diff --git a/es-es/c++-es.html.markdown b/es-es/c++-es.html.markdown
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..bcc775e5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/es-es/c++-es.html.markdown
@@ -0,0 +1,829 @@
+---
+language: c++
+filename: learncpp.cpp
+contributors:
+ - ["Steven Basart", "http://github.com/xksteven"]
+ - ["Matt Kline", "https://github.com/mrkline"]
+ - ["Geoff Liu", "http://geoffliu.me"]
+ - ["Connor Waters", "http://github.com/connorwaters"]
+translators:
+ - ["Gerson Lázaro", "https://gersonlazaro.com"]
+lang: es-es
+---
+
+C++ es un lenguaje de programación de sistemas que,
+[de acuerdo a su inventor Bjarne Stroustrup](http://channel9.msdn.com/Events/Lang-NEXT/Lang-NEXT-2014/Keynote),
+fue diseñado para
+
+- ser un "mejor C"
+- soportar abstracción de datos
+- soportar programación orientada a objetos
+- soportar programación genérica
+
+Aunque su sintaxis puede ser más difícil o compleja que los nuevos lenguajes,
+es ampliamente utilizado, ya que compila instrucciones nativas que pueden ser
+directamente ejecutadas por el procesador y ofrece un estricto control sobre
+el hardware (como C), mientras ofrece características de alto nivel como
+genericidad, excepciones, y clases. Esta combinación de velocidad y
+funcionalidad hace de C ++ uno de los lenguajes de programación más utilizados.
+
+```c++
+////////////////////
+// Comparación con C
+////////////////////
+
+// C ++ es _casi_ un superconjunto de C y comparte su sintaxis básica para las
+// declaraciones de variables, tipos primitivos y funciones.
+
+// Al igual que en C, el punto de entrada de tu programa es una función llamada
+// main con un retorno de tipo entero.
+// Este valor sirve como código de salida del programa.
+// Mira http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exit_status para mayor información.
+int main(int argc, char** argv)
+{
+ // Los argumentos de la línea de comandos se pasan por argc y argv de la
+ // misma manera que en C.
+ // argc indica el número de argumentos,
+ // y argv es un arreglo de strings de estilo C (char*)
+ // representando los argumentos.
+ // El primer argumento es el nombre con el que el programa es llamado.
+ // argc y argv pueden omitirse si no te preocupan los argumentos,
+ // dejando la definición de la función como int main ()
+
+ // Un estado de salida 0 indica éxito.
+ return 0;
+}
+
+// Sin embargo, C ++ varía en algunas de las siguientes maneras:
+
+// En C++, los caracteres literales son caracteres
+sizeof('c') == sizeof(char) == 1
+
+// En C, los caracteres literales son enteros
+sizeof('c') == sizeof(int)
+
+
+// C++ tiene prototipado estricto
+void func(); // función que no acepta argumentos
+
+// En C
+void func(); // función que puede aceptar cualquier número de argumentos
+
+// Use nullptr en lugar de NULL en C++
+int* ip = nullptr;
+
+// Las cabeceras (headers) estándar de C están disponibles en C ++,
+// pero tienen el prefijo "c" y no tienen sufijo .h.
+#include
+
+int main()
+{
+ printf("Hola mundo!\n");
+ return 0;
+}
+
+//////////////////////////
+// Sobrecarga de funciones
+//////////////////////////
+
+// C++ soporta sobrecarga de funciones
+// siempre que cada función tenga diferentes parámetros.
+
+void print(char const* myString)
+{
+ printf("String %s\n", myString);
+}
+
+void print(int myInt)
+{
+ printf("Mi entero es %d", myInt);
+}
+
+int main()
+{
+ print("Hello"); // Resolves to void print(const char*)
+ print(15); // Resolves to void print(int)
+}
+
+////////////////////////////////////
+// Argumentos de función por defecto
+////////////////////////////////////
+
+// Puedes proporcionar argumentos por defecto para una función si no son
+// proporcionados por quien la llama.
+
+void doSomethingWithInts(int a = 1, int b = 4)
+{
+ // Hacer algo con los enteros aqui
+}
+
+int main()
+{
+ doSomethingWithInts(); // a = 1, b = 4
+ doSomethingWithInts(20); // a = 20, b = 4
+ doSomethingWithInts(20, 5); // a = 20, b = 5
+}
+
+// Los argumentos predeterminados deben estar al final de la lista de argumentos.
+
+void invalidDeclaration(int a = 1, int b) // Error!
+{
+}
+
+/////////////////////
+// Espacios de nombre
+/////////////////////
+
+// Espacios de nombres proporcionan ámbitos separados para variable, función y
+// otras declaraciones.
+// Los espacios de nombres se pueden anidar.
+
+namespace First {
+ namespace Nested {
+ void foo()
+ {
+ printf("Esto es First::Nested::foo\n");
+ }
+ } // fin del nombre de espacio Nested
+} // fin del nombre de espacio First
+
+namespace Second {
+ void foo()
+ {
+ printf("Esto es Second::foo\n")
+ }
+}
+
+void foo()
+{
+ printf("Este es global: foo\n");
+}
+
+int main()
+{
+
+ // Incluye todos los símbolos del espacio de nombre Second en el ámbito
+ // actual. Tenga en cuenta que simplemente foo() no funciona, ya que ahora
+ // es ambigua si estamos llamando a foo en espacio de nombres Second o en
+ // el nivel superior.
+ using namespace Second;
+
+ Second::foo(); // imprime "Esto es Second::foo"
+ First::Nested::foo(); // imprime "Esto es First::Nested::foo"
+ ::foo(); // imprime "Este es global: foo"
+}
+
+/////////////////
+// Entrada/Salida
+/////////////////
+
+// La entrada y salida de C++ utiliza flujos (streams)
+// cin, cout, y cerr representan a stdin, stdout, y stderr.
+// << es el operador de inserción >> es el operador de extracción.
+
+
+#include // Incluir para el flujo de entrada/salida
+
+using namespace std; // Los streams estan en std namespace (libreria estandar)
+
+int main()
+{
+ int myInt;
+
+ // Imprime a la stdout (o terminal/pantalla)
+ cout << "Ingresa tu número favorito:\n";
+ // Toma una entrada
+ cin >> myInt;
+
+ // cout puede también ser formateado
+ cout << "Tu número favorito es " << myInt << "\n";
+ // imprime "Tu número favorito es "
+
+ cerr << "Usado para mensajes de error";
+}
+////////////////////
+// Cadenas (Strings)
+////////////////////
+
+// Las cadenas en C++ son objetos y tienen muchas funciones
+#include
+
+using namespace std; // Strings también estan en namespace std
+
+string myString = "Hola";
+string myOtherString = " Mundo";
+
+// + es usado para concatenar.
+cout << myString + myOtherString; // "Hola Mundo"
+
+cout << myString + " Tu"; // "Hola Tu"
+
+// Las cadenas en C++ son mutables y tienen valor semántico.
+myString.append(" Perro");
+cout << myString; // "Hola Perro"
+
+
+//////////////
+// Referencias
+//////////////
+
+// Además de punteros como los de C,
+// C++ tiene _references_.
+// Estos tipos de puntero no pueden ser reasignados una vez establecidos
+// Y no pueden ser nulos.
+// También tienen la misma sintaxis que la propia variable:
+// No es necesaria * para eliminar la referencia y
+// & (dirección) no se utiliza para la asignación.
+
+using namespace std;
+
+string foo = "Yo soy foo";
+string bar = "Yo soy bar";
+
+string& fooRef = foo; // Crea una referencia a foo.
+fooRef += ". Hola!"; // Modifica foo través de la referencia
+cout << fooRef; // Imprime "Yo soy foo. Hola!"
+
+// No trate de reasignar "fooRef". Esto es lo mismo que "foo = bar", y
+// foo == "Yo soy bar"
+// después de esta linea.
+fooRef = bar;
+
+const string& barRef = bar; // Crea una referencia constante a bar.
+// Como en C, los valores constantes (y punteros y referencias) no pueden ser
+// modificados.
+barRef += ". Hola!"; // Error, referencia constante no puede ser modificada.
+
+// Sidetrack: Antes de hablar más sobre referencias, hay que introducir un
+// concepto llamado objeto temporal. Supongamos que tenemos el siguiente código:
+string tempObjectFun() { ... }
+string retVal = tempObjectFun();
+
+// Lo que pasa en la segunda línea es en realidad:
+// - Un objeto de cadena es retornado desde tempObjectFun
+// - Una nueva cadena se construye con el objeto devuelto como argumento al
+// constructor
+// - El objeto devuelto es destruido
+// El objeto devuelto se llama objeto temporal. Objetos temporales son
+// creados cada vez que una función devuelve un objeto, y es destruido en el
+// fin de la evaluación de la expresión que encierra (Bueno, esto es lo que la
+// norma dice, pero los compiladores están autorizados a cambiar este
+// comportamiento. Busca "return value optimization" para ver mas detalles).
+// Así que en este código:
+foo(bar(tempObjectFun()))
+
+// Suponiendo que foo y bar existen, el objeto retornado de tempObjectFun es
+// pasado al bar, y se destruye antes de llamar foo.
+
+// Ahora, de vuelta a las referencias. La excepción a la regla "en el extremo
+// de la expresión encerrada" es si un objeto temporal se une a una
+// referencia constante, en cuyo caso su vida se extiende al ámbito actual:
+
+void constReferenceTempObjectFun() {
+ // ConstRef obtiene el objeto temporal, y es válido hasta el final de esta
+ // función.
+ const string& constRef = tempObjectFun();
+ ...
+}
+
+// Otro tipo de referencia introducida en C ++ 11 es específicamente para
+// objetos temporales. No se puede tener una variable de este tipo, pero tiene
+// prioridad en resolución de sobrecarga:
+
+void someFun(string& s) { ... } // Referencia regular
+void someFun(string&& s) { ... } // Referencia a objeto temporal
+
+string foo;
+someFun(foo); // Llama la función con referencia regular
+someFun(tempObjectFun()); // Llama la versión con referencia temporal
+
+// Por ejemplo, puedes ver estas dos versiones de constructores para
+// std::basic_string:
+basic_string(const basic_string& other);
+basic_string(basic_string&& other);
+
+// La idea es que si estamos construyendo una nueva cadena de un objeto temporal
+// (que va a ser destruido pronto de todos modos), podemos tener un constructor
+// mas eficiente que "rescata" partes de esa cadena temporal. Usted verá este
+// Concepto denominado "movimiento semántico".
+
+////////////////////////////////////////////
+// Clases y programación orientada a objetos
+////////////////////////////////////////////
+
+// Primer ejemplo de clases
+#include
+
+// Declara una clase.
+// Las clases son usualmente declaradas en archivos de cabeceras (.h o .hpp)
+class Dog {
+ // Variables y funciones de la clase son privados por defecto.
+ std::string name;
+ int weight;
+
+// Todos los miembros siguientes de este son públicos
+// Hasta que se encuentre "private" o "protected".
+// All members following this are public
+// until "private:" or "protected:" is found.
+public:
+
+ // Constructor por defecto
+ Dog();
+
+ // Declaraciones de funciones de la clase (implementaciones a seguir)
+ // Nota que usamos std::string aquí en lugar de colocar
+ // using namespace std;
+ // arriba.
+ // Nunca ponga una declaración "using namespace" en un encabezado.
+ void setName(const std::string& dogsName);
+
+ void setWeight(int dogsWeight);
+ // Funciones que no modifican el estado del objeto
+ // Deben marcarse como const.
+ // Esto le permite llamarlas si se envia una referencia constante al objeto.
+ // También tenga en cuenta que las funciones deben ser declaradas
+ // explícitamente como _virtual_ para que sea reemplazada en las clases
+ // derivadas.
+ // Las funciones no son virtuales por defecto por razones de rendimiento.
+ virtual void print() const;
+
+ // Las funciones también se pueden definir en el interior
+ // del cuerpo de la clase.
+ // Funciones definidas como tales están entre líneas automáticamente.
+ void bark() const { std::cout << name << " barks!\n"; }
+
+ // Junto a los constructores, C++ proporciona destructores.
+ // Estos son llamados cuando un objeto se elimina o está fuera del ámbito.
+ // Esto permite paradigmas potentes como RAII
+ // (mira abajo)
+ // El destructor debe ser virtual si una clase es dervada desde el;
+ // Si no es virtual, entonces la clase derivada destructor
+ // No será llamada si el objeto se destruye a través de una referencia de
+ // la clase base o puntero.
+ virtual ~Dog();
+
+
+
+}; // Un punto y coma debe seguir la definición de clase.
+
+// Las funciones de una clase son normalmente implementados en archivos .cpp.
+Dog::Dog()
+{
+ std::cout << "Un perro ha sido construido\n";
+}
+
+// Objetos (tales como cadenas) deben ser pasados por referencia
+// Si los estas modificando o referencia constante en caso contrario.
+void Dog::setName(const std::string& dogsName)
+{
+ name = dogsName;
+}
+
+void Dog::setWeight(int dogsWeight)
+{
+ weight = dogsWeight;
+}
+
+// Nota que "virtual" sólo se necesita en la declaración, no en la definición.
+void Dog::print() const
+{
+ std::cout << "El perro es " << name << " y pesa " << weight << "kg\n";
+}
+
+Dog::~Dog()
+{
+ cout << "Adiós " << name << "\n";
+}
+
+int main() {
+ Dog myDog; // imprime "Un perro ha sido construido"
+ myDog.setName("Barkley");
+ myDog.setWeight(10);
+ myDog.print(); // imprime "El perro es Barkley y pesa 10 kg"
+ return 0;
+} // imprime "Adiós Barkley"
+
+// Herencia:
+
+// Esta clase hereda todo lo público y protegido de la clase Dog
+class OwnedDog : public Dog {
+
+ void setOwner(const std::string& dogsOwner);
+
+ // Reemplaza el comportamiento de la función de impresión
+ // de todos los OwnedDogs. Mira
+ // http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymorphism_(computer_science)#Subtyping
+ // Para una introducción más general si no está familiarizado con el
+ // polimorfismo de subtipo.
+ // La palabra clave override es opcional, pero asegura que estás
+ // reemplazando el método de una clase base.
+ void print() const override;
+
+private:
+ std::string owner;
+};
+
+// Mientras tanto, en el archivo .cpp correspondiente:
+
+void OwnedDog::setOwner(const std::string& dogsOwner)
+{
+ owner = dogsOwner;
+}
+
+void OwnedDog::print() const
+{
+ Dog::print(); // Llama a la función de impresión en la clase base Dog
+ std::cout << "El perro es de " << owner << "\n";
+ // Imprime "El perro es y pesa "
+ // "El perro es de "
+}
+
+////////////////////////////////////////////
+// Inicialización y sobrecarga de operadores
+////////////////////////////////////////////
+
+// En C ++ se puede sobrecargar el comportamiento
+// de los operadores como +, -, *, /, etc.
+// Esto se hace mediante la definición de una función que es llamada
+// cada vez que se utiliza el operador.
+
+#include
+using namespace std;
+
+class Point {
+public:
+ // Las variables de la clase pueden dar valores por defecto de esta manera.
+ double x = 0;
+ double y = 0;
+
+ // Define un constructor por defecto que no hace nada
+ // pero inicializa el punto al valor por defecto (0, 0)
+ Point() { };
+
+ // The following syntax is known as an initialization list
+ // and is the proper way to initialize class member values
+ Point (double a, double b) :
+ x(a),
+ y(b)
+ { /* No hace nada excepto inicializar los valores */ }
+
+ // Sobrecarga el operador +
+ Point operator+(const Point& rhs) const;
+
+ // Sobrecarga el operador +=
+ Point& operator+=(const Point& rhs);
+
+ // También tendría sentido añadir los operadores - y -=,
+ // Pero vamos a omitirlos por razones de brevedad.
+};
+
+Point Point::operator+(const Point& rhs) const
+{
+ // Crea un nuevo punto que es la suma de este y rhs.
+ return Point(x + rhs.x, y + rhs.y);
+}
+
+Point& Point::operator+=(const Point& rhs)
+{
+ x += rhs.x;
+ y += rhs.y;
+ return *this;
+}
+
+int main () {
+ Point up (0,1);
+ Point right (1,0);
+ // Llama al operador + de Point
+ // Point llama la función + con right como parámetro
+ Point result = up + right;
+ // Prints "Result is upright (1,1)"
+ cout << "Result is upright (" << result.x << ',' << result.y << ")\n";
+ return 0;
+}
+
+/////////////////////////
+// Plantillas (Templates)
+/////////////////////////
+
+// Las plantillas en C++ se utilizan sobre todo en la programación genérica,
+// a pesar de que son mucho más poderoso que los constructores genéricos
+// en otros lenguajes. Ellos también soportan especialización explícita y
+// parcial y clases de tipo estilo funcional; de hecho, son un lenguaje
+// funcional Turing-completo incrustado en C ++!
+
+// Empezamos con el tipo de programación genérica que podría estar
+// familiarizado.
+// Para definir una clase o función que toma un parámetro de tipo:
+template
+class Box {
+public:
+ // En este caso, T puede ser usado como cualquier otro tipo.
+ void insert(const T&) { ... }
+};
+
+// Durante la compilación, el compilador realmente genera copias de cada
+// plantilla con parámetros sustituidos, por lo que la definición completa
+// de la clase debe estar presente en cada invocación.
+// Es por esto que usted verá clases de plantilla definidas
+// Enteramente en archivos de cabecera.
+
+//Para crear una instancia de una clase de plantilla en la pila:
+Box intBox;
+
+y puedes utilizarlo como era de esperar:
+intBox.insert(123);
+
+// Puedes, por supuesto, anidar plantillas:
+Box > boxOfBox;
+boxOfBox.insert(intBox);
+
+// Hasta C++11, había que colocar un espacio entre los dos '>'s,
+// de lo contrario '>>' serían analizados como el operador de desplazamiento
+// a la derecha.
+
+
+// A veces verás
+// template
+// en su lugar. La palabra clave "class" y las palabras clave "typename" son
+// mayormente intercambiables en este caso. Para la explicación completa, mira
+// http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typename
+// (sí, esa palabra clave tiene su propia página de Wikipedia).
+
+// Del mismo modo, una plantilla de función:
+template
+void barkThreeTimes(const T& input)
+{
+ input.bark();
+ input.bark();
+ input.bark();
+}
+
+// Observe que no se especifica nada acerca de los tipos de parámetros aquí.
+// El compilador generará y comprobará cada invocación de la plantilla,
+// por lo que la función anterior funciona con cualquier tipo "T"
+// que tenga un método 'bark' constante!
+
+
+Dog fluffy;
+fluffy.setName("Fluffy")
+barkThreeTimes(fluffy); // Imprime "Fluffy barks" 3 veces.
+
+Los parámetros de la plantilla no tienen que ser las clases:
+template
+void printMessage() {
+ cout << "Aprende C++ en " << Y << " minutos!" << endl;
+}
+
+// Y usted puede especializar explícitamente plantillas
+// para código más eficiente.
+// Por supuesto, la mayor parte del mundo real que utiliza una especialización
+// no son tan triviales como esta.
+// Tenga en cuenta que usted todavía tiene que declarar la función (o clase)
+// como plantilla incluso si ha especificado de forma explícita todos
+// los parámetros.
+
+template<>
+void printMessage<10>() {
+ cout << "Aprende C++ rapido en solo 10 minutos!" << endl;
+}
+
+printMessage<20>(); // Prints "Aprende C++ en 20 minutos!"
+printMessage<10>(); // Prints "Aprende C++ rapido en solo 10 minutos!"
+
+
+/////////////////////
+// Manejador de excepciones
+/////////////////////
+
+// La biblioteca estándar proporciona algunos tipos de excepción
+// (mira http://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/error/exception)
+// pero cualquier tipo puede ser lanzado como una excepción
+#include
+#include
+
+//Todas las excepciones lanzadas dentro del bloque _try_ pueden ser
+// capturados por los siguientes manejadores _catch_.
+try {
+ // No asignar excepciones en el heap usando _new_.
+ throw std::runtime_error("Ocurrió un problema");
+}
+
+// Captura excepciones por referencia const si son objetos
+catch (const std::exception& ex)
+{
+ std::cout << ex.what();
+}
+********************************************************************************
+// Captura cualquier excepción no capturada por bloques _catch_ anteriores
+catch (...)
+{
+ std::cout << "Excepción desconocida capturada";
+ throw; // Re-lanza la excepción
+}
+
+///////
+// RAII
+///////
+
+// RAII significa "Resource Acquisition Is Initialization"
+// (Adquisición de recursos es inicialización).
+// A menudo se considera el paradigma más poderoso en C++
+// Y el concepto es simple: un constructor de un objeto
+// Adquiere recursos de ese objeto y el destructor les libera.
+
+// Para entender cómo esto es útil,
+// Considere una función que utiliza un identificador de archivo C:
+void doSomethingWithAFile(const char* filename)
+{
+ // Para empezar, asuma que nada puede fallar.
+
+ FILE* fh = fopen(filename, "r"); // Abre el archivo en modo lectura
+
+ doSomethingWithTheFile(fh);
+ doSomethingElseWithIt(fh);
+
+ fclose(fh); // Cierra el manejador de archivos
+}
+
+// Por desgracia, las cosas se complican rápidamente por el control de errores.
+// Supongamos que fopen puede fallar, y que doSomethingWithTheFile y
+// DoSomethingElseWithIt retornan códigos de error si fallan.
+// (Excepciones son la mejor forma de manejar los fallos,
+// pero algunos programadores, especialmente los que tienen un fondo C,
+// estan en desacuerdo sobre la utilidad de las excepciones).
+// Ahora tenemos que comprobar cada llamado por fallos y cerrar el manejador
+// del archivo si se ha producido un problema.
+bool doSomethingWithAFile(const char* filename)
+{
+ FILE* fh = fopen(filename, "r"); // Abre el archivo en modo lectura
+ if (fh == nullptr) // El puntero retornado es nulo o falla.
+ return false; // Reporta el fallo a quien hizo el llamado.
+
+ // Asume que cada función retorna falso si falla
+ if (!doSomethingWithTheFile(fh)) {
+ fclose(fh); // Cierre el manejador de archivo para que no se filtre.
+ return false; // Propaga el error.
+ }
+ if (!doSomethingElseWithIt(fh)) {
+ fclose(fh); // Cierre el manejador de archivo para que no se filtre.
+ return false; // Propaga el error.
+ }
+
+ fclose(fh); // Cierre el archivo.
+ return true; // Indica que todo funcionó correctamente.
+}
+
+// Programadores C suelen limpiar esto un poco usando goto:
+bool doSomethingWithAFile(const char* filename)
+{
+ FILE* fh = fopen(filename, "r");
+ if (fh == nullptr)
+ return false;
+
+ if (!doSomethingWithTheFile(fh))
+ goto failure;
+
+ if (!doSomethingElseWithIt(fh))
+ goto failure;
+
+ fclose(fh); // Cierre el archivo.
+ return true; // Indica que todo funcionó correctamente.
+
+failure:
+ fclose(fh);
+ return false; // Propagate el error
+}
+
+// Si las funciones indican errores mediante excepciones,
+// Las cosas son un poco más claras, pero pueden optimizarse mas.
+void doSomethingWithAFile(const char* filename)
+{
+ FILE* fh = fopen(filename, "r"); // Abrir el archivo en modo lectura
+ if (fh == nullptr)
+ throw std::runtime_error("No puede abrirse el archivo.");
+
+ try {
+ doSomethingWithTheFile(fh);
+ doSomethingElseWithIt(fh);
+ }
+ catch (...) {
+ fclose(fh); // Asegúrese de cerrar el archivo si se produce un error.
+ throw; // Luego vuelve a lanzar la excepción.
+ }
+
+ fclose(fh); // Cierra el archivo
+}
+
+// Compare esto con el uso de la clase de flujo de archivos de C++ (fstream)
+// fstream utiliza su destructor para cerrar el archivo.
+// Los destructores son llamados automáticamente
+// cuando un objeto queda fuera del ámbito.
+void doSomethingWithAFile(const std::string& filename)
+{
+ // ifstream es la abreviatura de el input file stream
+ std::ifstream fh(filename); // Abre el archivo
+
+ // Hacer algo con el archivo
+ doSomethingWithTheFile(fh);
+ doSomethingElseWithIt(fh);
+
+} // El archivo se cierra automáticamente aquí por el destructor
+
+
+// Esto tiene ventajas _enormes_:
+// 1. No importa lo que pase,
+// El recurso (en este caso el manejador de archivo) será limpiado.
+// Una vez que escribes el destructor correctamente,
+// Es _imposible_ olvidar cerrar el identificador y permitir
+// fugas del recurso.
+// 2. Tenga en cuenta que el código es mucho más limpio.
+// El destructor se encarga de cerrar el archivo detrás de cámaras
+// Sin que tenga que preocuparse por ello.
+// 3. El código es seguro.
+// Una excepción puede ser lanzado en cualquier lugar de la función
+// y la limpieza ocurrirá.
+
+// Todo el código idiomático C++ utiliza RAII ampliamente para todos los
+// recursos.
+// Otros ejemplos incluyen
+// - Memoria usando unique_ptr y shared_ptr
+// - Contenedores (Containers) - la biblioteca estándar linked list,
+// vector (es decir, array con auto-cambio de tamaño), hash maps, etc.
+// Destruimos todos sus contenidos de forma automática
+// cuando quedan fuera del ámbito.
+// - Mutex utilizando lock_guard y unique_lock
+
+
+/////////////////////
+// Cosas divertidas
+/////////////////////
+
+// Aspectos de C ++ que pueden sorprender a los recién llegados
+// (e incluso algunos veteranos).
+// Esta sección es, por desgracia, salvajemente incompleta;
+// C++ es uno de los lenguajes con los que mas facil te disparas en el pie.
+
+// Tu puedes sobreescribir métodos privados!
+class Foo {
+ virtual void bar();
+};
+class FooSub : public Foo {
+ virtual void bar(); // Sobreescribe Foo::bar!
+};
+
+
+// 0 == false == NULL (La mayoria de las veces)!
+bool* pt = new bool;
+*pt = 0; // Establece los puntos de valor de 'pt' en falso.
+pt = 0; // Establece 'pt' al apuntador nulo. Ambas lineas compilan sin error.
+
+// nullptr se supone que arregla un poco de ese tema:
+int* pt2 = new int;
+*pt2 = nullptr; // No compila
+pt2 = nullptr; // Establece pt2 como null.
+
+// Hay una excepción para los valores bool.
+// Esto es para permitir poner a prueba punteros nulos con if (!ptr),
+// pero como consecuencia se puede asignar nullptr a un bool directamente!
+*pt = nullptr; // Esto todavía compila, a pesar de que '*pt' es un bool!
+
+// '=' != '=' != '='!
+// Llama Foo::Foo(const Foo&) o alguna variante (mira movimientos semanticos)
+// copia del constructor.
+Foo f2;
+Foo f1 = f2;
+
+// Llama Foo::Foo(const Foo&) o variante, pero solo copia el 'Foo' parte de
+// 'fooSub'. Cualquier miembro extra de 'fooSub' se descarta. Este
+// comportamiento horrible se llama "Corte de objetos."
+FooSub fooSub;
+Foo f1 = fooSub;
+
+// Llama a Foo::operator=(Foo&) o variantes.
+Foo f1;
+f1 = f2;
+
+
+// Cómo borrar realmente un contenedor:
+class Foo { ... };
+vector v;
+for (int i = 0; i < 10; ++i)
+ v.push_back(Foo());
+// La siguiente línea establece el tamaño de v en 0,
+// pero los destructores no son llamados y los recursos no se liberan!
+
+v.empty();
+v.push_back(Foo()); // Nuevo valor se copia en el primer Foo que insertamos
+
+// En verdad destruye todos los valores en v.
+// Consulta la sección acerca de los objetos temporales para la
+// explicación de por qué esto funciona.
+v.swap(vector());
+
+```
+Otras lecturas:
+
+Una referencia del lenguaje hasta a la fecha se puede encontrar en
+
+
+Recursos adicionales se pueden encontrar en
diff --git a/es-es/git-es.html.markdown b/es-es/git-es.html.markdown
index 73853a9d..18b544b4 100644
--- a/es-es/git-es.html.markdown
+++ b/es-es/git-es.html.markdown
@@ -11,15 +11,15 @@ lang: es-es
---
Git es un sistema de control de versiones distribuido diseñado para manejar
-cualquier tipo de proyecto ya sea largos o pequeños, con velocidad y eficiencia.
+cualquier tipo de proyecto, ya sea grande o pequeño, con velocidad y eficiencia.
Git realiza esto haciendo "snapshots" del proyecto, con ello permite
versionar y administrar nuestro código fuente.
## Versionamiento, conceptos.
-### Que es el control de versiones?
-El control de versiones es un sistema que guarda todos los cambios realizados a
+### Qué es el control de versiones?
+El control de versiones es un sistema que guarda todos los cambios realizados en
uno o varios archivos, a lo largo del tiempo.
### Versionamiento centralizado vs Versionamiento Distribuido.
@@ -31,15 +31,15 @@ uno o varios archivos, a lo largo del tiempo.
+ El versionamiento distribuido no tiene una estructura definida, incluso se
puede mantener el estilo de los repositorios SVN con git.
-[Informacion adicional](http://git-scm.com/book/es/Empezando-Acerca-del-control-de-versiones)
+[Información adicional](http://git-scm.com/book/es/Empezando-Acerca-del-control-de-versiones)
-### Por que usar Git?
+### Por qué usar Git?
* Se puede trabajar sin conexion.
-* Colaborar con otros es sencillo!.
-* Derivar, Crear ramas del proyecto (aka: Branching) es facil!.
+* ¡Colaborar con otros es sencillo!.
+* Derivar, crear ramas del proyecto (aka: Branching) es fácil.
* Combinar (aka: Merging)
-* Git es rapido.
+* Git es rápido.
* Git es flexible.
## Arquitectura de Git.
@@ -48,10 +48,10 @@ uno o varios archivos, a lo largo del tiempo.
Un repositorio es un conjunto de archivos, directorios, registros, cambios (aka:
comits), y encabezados (aka: heads). Imagina que un repositorio es una clase,
-y que sus atributos otorgan acceso al historial del elemento, ademas de otras
+y que sus atributos otorgan acceso al historial del elemento, además de otras
cosas.
-Un repositorio esta compuesto por la carpeta .git y un "arbol de trabajo".
+Un repositorio esta compuesto por la carpeta .git y un "árbol de trabajo".
### Directorio .git (componentes del repositorio)
@@ -62,38 +62,38 @@ y mas.
### Directorio de trabajo (componentes del repositorio)
-Es basicamente los directorios y archivos dentro del repositorio. La mayorioa de
+Es basicamente los directorios y archivos dentro del repositorio. La mayoría de
las veces se le llama "directorio de trabajo".
-### Inidice (componentes del directorio .git)
+### Índice (componentes del directorio .git)
-El inidice es la area de inicio en git. Es basicamente la capa que separa el
-directorio de trabajo, del repositorio en git. Esto otorga a los desarrolladores
-mas poder sobre lo que envia y recibe en el repositorio.
+El índice es el área de inicio en git. Es basicamente la capa que separa el
+directorio de trabajo del repositorio en git. Esto otorga a los desarrolladores
+más poder sobre lo que se envía y se recibe del repositorio.
### Commit (aka: cambios)
Un commit es una captura de un conjunto de cambios, o modificaciones hechas en
-el directorio de trabajo. Por ejemplo, si se añaden 5 archivos, se remueven 2,
-estos cambios se almacenaran en un commit (aka: captura). Este commit puede ser o
+el directorio de trabajo. Por ejemplo, si se añaden 5 archivos, se eliminan 2,
+estos cambios se almacenarán en un commit (aka: captura). Este commit puede ser o
no ser enviado (aka: "pusheado") hacia un repositorio.
### Branch (rama)
-Un "branch", es escencialmente un apuntador hacia el ultimo commit (cambio
-registrado) que se ha realizado. A medida que se realizan mas commits, este
-apuntador se actualizara automaticamente hacia el ultimo commit.
+Un "branch", es escencialmente un apuntador hacia el último commit (cambio
+registrado) que se ha realizado. A medida que se realizan más commits, este
+apuntador se actualizará automaticamente hacia el ultimo commit.
-### "HEAD" y "head" (component of .git dir)
+### "HEAD" y "head" (componentes del directorio .git)
"HEAD" es un apuntador hacia la rama (branch) que se esta utilizando. Un
repositorio solo puede tener un HEAD activo. En cambio "head", es un apuntador a
-cualquier commit realizado, un repositorio puede tener cualquier numero de
+cualquier commit realizado, un repositorio puede tener cualquier número de
"heads".
### conceptos - recursos.
-* [Git para informaticos](http://eagain.net/articles/git-for-computer-scientists/)
+* [Git para informáticos](http://eagain.net/articles/git-for-computer-scientists/)
* [Git para diseñadores](http://hoth.entp.com/output/git_for_designers.html)
@@ -102,8 +102,8 @@ cualquier commit realizado, un repositorio puede tener cualquier numero de
### init
-Crear un repositorio de git vacio. Las configuraciones, informacion almacenada y
-demas son almacenadas en el directorio ".git".
+Crear un repositorio de git vacio. Las configuraciones, información almacenada y
+demás son almacenadas en el directorio ".git".
```bash
$ git init
@@ -115,7 +115,7 @@ Se utiliza para configurar las opciones ya sea globalmente, o solamente en el
repositorio.
```bash
-# Imprime y guarda algunas variables de configuracion basicas. (Globalmente)
+# Imprime y guarda algunas variables de configuracion básicas. (Globalmente)
$ git config --global user.email
$ git config --global user.name
@@ -123,15 +123,15 @@ $ git config --global user.email "corre@gmail.com"
$ git config --global user.name "nombre"
```
-[Mas sobre git config.](http://git-scm.com/book/es/Personalizando-Git-Configuración-de-Git)
+[Más sobre git config.](http://git-scm.com/book/es/Personalizando-Git-Configuración-de-Git)
### help
-Otorga un accceso rapido a una guia extremadamente detallada de cada comando en
+Otorga un accceso rápido a una guía extremadamente detallada de cada comando en
git. O puede ser usada simplemente como un recordatorio de estos.
```bash
-# Una vista rapido de los comandos disponibles.
+# Una vista rápida de los comandos disponibles.
$ git help
# Chequear todos los comandos disponibles
@@ -146,12 +146,12 @@ $ git help init
### status
-Muestra las diferencias entre el archivo indice y el commit al cual apunta el
+Muestra las diferencias entre el archivo índice y el commit al cual apunta el
HEAD actualmente.
```bash
-# Mostrara el "branch", archivos sin añadir a la repo, cambios y otras
+# Mostrará el "branch", archivos sin añadir al repo, cambios y otras
# diferencias
$ git status
@@ -161,9 +161,9 @@ $ git help status
### add
-Para añadir archivos al arbol (directorio, repositorio) de trabajo. Si no se
-utiliza `git add`, los nuevos archivos no se añadiran al arbol de trabajo, por
-lo que no se incluiran en los commits (cambios).
+Para añadir archivos al árbol (directorio, repositorio) de trabajo. Si no se
+utiliza `git add`, los nuevos archivos no se añadirán al arbol de trabajo, por
+lo que no se incluirán en los commits (cambios).
```bash
# Añade un archivo en el directorio de trabajo actual.
@@ -178,31 +178,31 @@ $ git add ./*.py
### branch
-Administra las ramas del repositorios ("branches"). Puedes ver, editar, crear y
+Administra las ramas del repositorio ("branches"). Puedes ver, editar, crear y
borrar ramas ("branches"), usando este comando.
```bash
# lista todas las ramas (remotas y locales)
$ git branch -a
-# Añada una nueva rama ("branch").
+# Añadir una nueva rama ("branch").
$ git branch branchNueva
# Eliminar una rama.
$ git branch -d branchFoo
-# Renombra una rama.
+# Renombrar una rama.
# git branch -m
$ git branch -m youngling padawan
-# Edita la descripcion de la rama.
+# Editar la descripcion de la rama.
$ git branch master --edit-description
```
### checkout
Actualiza todos los archivos en el directorio de trabajo para que sean igual que
-las versiones almacenadas en el indice, o en un arbol de trabajo especificado.
+las versiones almacenadas en el índice, o en un árbol de trabajo especificado.
```bash
# Despachar un repositorio. - Por defecto la master branch. (la rama principal llamada 'master')
@@ -215,8 +215,8 @@ $ git checkout -b jdei
### clone
-Clona, o copia, una repo existente en un nuevo directorio. Tambien añada el
-seguimiento hacia las ramas existentes del repo que ha sido clonada, lo que
+Clona, o copia, un repositorio existente en un nuevo directorio. También añade el
+seguimiento hacia las ramas existentes del repositorio que ha sido clonado, lo que
permite subir (push) los archivos hacia una rama remota.
```bash
@@ -226,60 +226,60 @@ $ git clone https://github.com/jquery/jquery.git
### commit
-Almacena los cambios que almacenados en el indice en un nuevo "commit". Este
-commit contiene los cambios hechos mas un resumen hecho por el desarrollador.
+Almacena el contenido actual del índice en un nuevo "commit". Este
+commit contiene los cambios hechos más un resumen proporcionado por el desarrollador.
```bash
-# commit with a message
# realizar un commit y añadirle un mensaje.
$ git commit -m "jedi anakin wil be - jedis.list"
```
### diff
-Muestra las diferencias entre un archivo en el directorio de trabajo, el indice
-y commits.
+Muestra las diferencias entre un archivo en el directorio de trabajo, el índice
+y los commits.
```bash
-# Muestra la diferencia entre un directorio de trabajo y el indice.
+# Muestra la diferencia entre un directorio de trabajo y el índice.
$ git diff
-# Muestra la diferencia entre el indice y los commits mas recientes.
+# Muestra la diferencia entre el índice y los commits más recientes.
$ git diff --cached
-# Muestra la diferencia entre el directorio de trabajo y el commit mas reciente.
+# Muestra la diferencia entre el directorio de trabajo y el commit más reciente.
$ git diff HEAD
```
### grep
-Permite realizar una busqueda rapida en un repositorio.
+Permite realizar una busqueda rápida en un repositorio.
-Configuracion opcionales:
+Configuraciones opcionales:
```bash
# Gracias a Travis Jeffery por compartir lo siguiente.
# Permite mostrar numeros de lineas en la salida de grep.
$ git config --global grep.lineNumber true
-# Realiza una busqueda mas lejible, incluyendo agrupacion.
+# Realiza una búsqueda mas legible, incluyendo agrupación.
$ git config --global alias.g "grep --break --heading --line-number"
```
```bash
-# Busca por "unaVariable" en todos los archivos ,java
+# Busca por "unaVariable" en todos los archivos .java
$ git grep 'unaVariable' -- '*.java'
-# Busca por una linea que contenga "nombreArreglo" y , "agregar" o "remover"
+# Busca por una línea que contenga "nombreArreglo" y "agregar" o "remover"
$ git grep -e 'nombreArreglo' --and \( -e agregar -e remover \)
```
-Mas ejemplos:
-[Git Grep Ninja](http://travisjeffery.com/b/2012/02/search-a-git-repo-like-a-ninja)
+Más ejemplos:
+
+- [Git Grep Ninja](http://travisjeffery.com/b/2012/02/search-a-git-repo-like-a-ninja)
### log
-Muestra los commits (cambios) registrados en el repositotrio.
+Muestra los commits (cambios) registrados en el repositorio.
```bash
# Muestra todos los commits.
@@ -288,7 +288,7 @@ $ git log
# Muestra un numero x de commits.
$ git log -n 10
-# Muestra solo los commits que se han combinado en el hisotrial
+# Muestra solo los commits que se han combinado en el historial.
$ git log --merges
```
@@ -301,7 +301,7 @@ que se trabaja.
# Combina la rama especificada en la rama actual.
$ git merge jediMaster
-# Siempre genere un solo merge commit cuando se utilizar merge.
+# Siempre genere un solo merge commit cuando se utiliza merge.
$ git merge --no-ff jediMaster
```
@@ -310,7 +310,7 @@ $ git merge --no-ff jediMaster
Renombra o mueve un archivo
```bash
-# Renombrando un archivo
+# Renombrando un archivo.
$ git mv HolaMundo.c AdiosMundo.c
# Moviendo un archivo.
@@ -322,33 +322,31 @@ $ git mv -f archivoA archivoB
### pull
-Sube (Empuja) de un repositorio y lo combina en otro en una rama diferente.
+Trae los cambios de un repositorio y los combina en otro en una rama diferente.
```bash
-# Actualiza el repositorio local, combinando los nuevos cambios.
+# Actualiza el repositorio local, combinando los nuevos cambios
# de las ramas remotas "origin" y "master".
-# from the remote "origin" and "master" branch.
# git pull
$ git pull origin master
```
### push
-Push and merge changes from a branch to a remote & branch.
+Envía y combina los cambios de un repositorio local a un repositorio y rama remotos.
```bash
-# Push and merge changes from a local repo to a
-# Empuja y combina cambios de un repositorio local hacian un repositorio remoto
+# Envía y combina cambios de un repositorio local hacia un repositorio remoto
# llamados "origin" y "master", respectivamente.
# git push
# git push => por defecto es lo mismo que poner => git push origin master
$ git push origin master
```
+### rebase
Toma todos los cambios que fueron registrados en una rama, y los repite dentro
-de otra rama.
-*No reescribe los commits que se han empujado antes a un repositorio publico*
+de otra rama. *No reescribe los commits que se han empujado antes a un repositorio público.*
```bash
# Integrar ramaExperimento dentro de la rama "master"
@@ -356,47 +354,47 @@ de otra rama.
$ git rebase master experimentBranch
```
-[Informacion adicional.](http://git-scm.com/book/es/Ramificaciones-en-Git-Procedimientos-básicos-para-ramificar-y-fusionar)
+[Información adicional.](http://git-scm.com/book/es/Ramificaciones-en-Git-Procedimientos-básicos-para-ramificar-y-fusionar)
-### reset (precaucion)
+### reset (precaución)
-Reinicia el cabezal actual hacia un estado especificado. Esto permite desacer
-combinaciones (merges), pulls, commits, adds y mas. Es un comando util, pero
-tambien peligrosa si no se sabe lo que se hace.
+Reinicia el HEAD actual hacia un estado especificado. Esto permite deshacer
+combinaciones (merges), pulls, commits, adds y más. Es un comando útil, pero
+tambien peligroso si no se sabe lo que se hace.
```bash
-# Reinica el area principal, con el ultimo cambio registrado. (deja los
+# Reinicia el área principal, con el último cambio registrado. (deja los
# directorios sin cambios)
$ git reset
-# Reinica el area principal, con el ultimo cambio registrado, y reescribe el
+# Reinicia el área principal, con el último cambio registrado, y reescribe el
# directorio de trabajo.
$ git reset --hard
# Mueve la rama actual hacia el commit especificado (no realiza cambios a los
-# directorios), todos los cambios aun existen el directorio.
+# directorios), todos los cambios aún existen el directorio.
$ git reset 31f2bb1
-# Mueve la rama actual devuelta a un commit especificado asi como el
-# directorios (borra todos los cambios que no fueron registros y todos los
-# cambios realizados despues del commit especificado).
+# Mueve la rama actual devuelta a un commit especificado, así como el
+# directorio (borra todos los cambios que no fueron registrados y todos los
+# cambios realizados después del commit especificado).
$ git reset --hard 31f2bb1
```
### rm
-Lo contrario de git add, git rm remueve los archivos del directorio de trabajo
+Lo contrario de git add, git rm elimina los archivos del directorio de trabajo
actual.
```bash
-# Remueve FooBar.c
+# Elimina FooBar.c
$ git rm FooBar.c
-# Remueve un archivo de un directorio.
+# Elimina un archivo de un directorio.
$ git rm /directorio/del/archivo/FooBar.c
```
-## Informacion Adicional
+## Información Adicional
* [tryGit - Una forma entretenida y rapida de aprender Git.](http://try.github.io/levels/1/challenges/1)
diff --git a/es-es/javascript-es.html.markdown b/es-es/javascript-es.html.markdown
index fd01e7b9..036d7082 100644
--- a/es-es/javascript-es.html.markdown
+++ b/es-es/javascript-es.html.markdown
@@ -478,9 +478,6 @@ miNumero === miNumeroObjeyo; // = false
if (0){
// Este código no se ejecutara porque 0 es false.
}
-if (Number(0)){
- // Este código sí se ejecutara, puesto que Number(0) es true.
-}
// Aún así, los objetos que envuelven y los prototipos por defecto comparten
// un prototipo. así que puedes agregar funcionalidades a un string de la
diff --git a/fa-ir/javascript.html.markdown b/fa-ir/javascript.html.markdown
index 5c64d24a..fe3555af 100644
--- a/fa-ir/javascript.html.markdown
+++ b/fa-ir/javascript.html.markdown
@@ -499,9 +499,6 @@ myNumber === myNumberObj; // = false
if (0){
// This code won't execute, because 0 is falsy.
}
-if (Number(0)){
- // This code *will* execute, because Number(0) is truthy.
-}
```
diff --git a/fr-fr/csharp-fr.html.markdown b/fr-fr/csharp-fr.html.markdown
index e51eacc8..58b3f386 100644
--- a/fr-fr/csharp-fr.html.markdown
+++ b/fr-fr/csharp-fr.html.markdown
@@ -239,7 +239,8 @@ sur une nouvelle ligne! ""Wow!"", quel style";
// Opérateur ternaire
// Un simple if/else peut s'écrire :
// ? :
- string isTrue = (true) ? "True" : "False";
+ int toCompare = 17;
+ string isTrue = toCompare == 17 ? "True" : "False";
// Boucle while
int fooWhile = 0;
diff --git a/fr-fr/javascript-fr.html.markdown b/fr-fr/javascript-fr.html.markdown
index 2e18d0be..15478cdb 100644
--- a/fr-fr/javascript-fr.html.markdown
+++ b/fr-fr/javascript-fr.html.markdown
@@ -469,9 +469,6 @@ myNumber === myNumberObj; // = false
if (0){
// 0 est falsy, le code ne fonctionnera pas.
}
-if (Number(0)){
- // Parce que Number(0) est truthy, le code fonctionnera
-}
// Cependant, vous pouvez ajouter des fonctionnalités aux types de bases grâce à
// cette particularité.
diff --git a/fr-fr/python-fr.html.markdown b/fr-fr/python-fr.html.markdown
index 58a036ba..3f6dcabb 100644
--- a/fr-fr/python-fr.html.markdown
+++ b/fr-fr/python-fr.html.markdown
@@ -15,11 +15,11 @@ Je suis tombé amoureux de Python de par la clarté de sa syntaxe. C'est pratiqu
Vos retours sont grandement appréciés. Vous pouvez me contacter sur Twitter [@louiedinh](http://twitter.com/louiedinh) ou par e-mail: louiedinh [at] [google's email service]
NB: Cet artice s'applique spécifiquement à Python 2.7, mais devrait s'appliquer pour toute version Python 2.x
-Vous pourrez bientôt trouver un article pour Python 3!
+Vous pourrez bientôt trouver un article pour Python 3 en Français. Pour le moment vous pouvez jettez un coup d'oeil à l'article [Python 3 en Anglais](http://learnxinyminutes.com/docs/python3/).
```python
# Une ligne simple de commentaire commence par un dièse
-""" Les lignes de commenatires multipes peuvent être écrites
+""" Les lignes de commentaires multipes peuvent être écrites
en utilisant 3 guillemets ("), et sont souvent utilisées
pour les commentaires
"""
diff --git a/git.html.markdown b/git.html.markdown
index bf8fce0c..b1347309 100644
--- a/git.html.markdown
+++ b/git.html.markdown
@@ -8,17 +8,17 @@ contributors:
filename: LearnGit.txt
---
-Git is a distributed version control and source code management system.
+Git is a distributed version control and source code management system.
-It does this through a series of snapshots of your project, and it works
-with those snapshots to provide you with functionality to version and
+It does this through a series of snapshots of your project, and it works
+with those snapshots to provide you with functionality to version and
manage your source code.
## Versioning Concepts
### What is version control?
-Version control is a system that records changes to a file, or set of files, over time.
+Version control is a system that records changes to a file(s), over time.
### Centralized Versioning VS Distributed Versioning
@@ -42,8 +42,9 @@ Version control is a system that records changes to a file, or set of files, ove
### Repository
-A set of files, directories, historical records, commits, and heads. Imagine it as a source code data structure,
-with the attribute that each source code "element" gives you access to its revision history, among other things.
+A set of files, directories, historical records, commits, and heads. Imagine it
+as a source code data structure, with the attribute that each source code
+"element" gives you access to its revision history, among other things.
A git repository is comprised of the .git directory & working tree.
@@ -54,32 +55,33 @@ The .git directory contains all the configurations, logs, branches, HEAD, and mo
### Working Tree (component of repository)
-This is basically the directories and files in your repository. It is often referred to
-as your working directory.
+This is basically the directories and files in your repository. It is often
+referred to as your working directory.
### Index (component of .git dir)
The Index is the staging area in git. It's basically a layer that separates your working tree
-from the Git repository. This gives developers more power over what gets sent to the Git
-repository.
+from the Git repository. This gives developers more power over what gets sent
+to the Git repository.
### Commit
-A git commit is a snapshot of a set of changes, or manipulations to your Working Tree.
-For example, if you added 5 files, and removed 2 others, these changes will be contained
-in a commit (or snapshot). This commit can then be pushed to other repositories, or not!
+A git commit is a snapshot of a set of changes, or manipulations to your Working
+Tree. For example, if you added 5 files, and removed 2 others, these changes
+will be contained in a commit (or snapshot). This commit can then be pushed to
+other repositories, or not!
### Branch
-A branch is essentially a pointer that points to the last commit you made. As you commit,
-this pointer will automatically update and point to the latest commit.
+A branch is essentially a pointer to the last commit you made. As you go on
+committing, this pointer will automatically update to point the latest commit.
### HEAD and head (component of .git dir)
HEAD is a pointer that points to the current branch. A repository only has 1 *active* HEAD.
head is a pointer that points to any commit. A repository can have any number of heads.
-###Stages of Git
+### Stages of Git
* Modified - Changes have been made to a file but file has not been committed to Git Database yet
* Staged - Marks a modified file to go into your next commit snapshot
* Committed - Files have been committed to the Git Database
@@ -95,7 +97,7 @@ head is a pointer that points to any commit. A repository can have any number of
### init
-Create an empty Git repository. The Git repository's settings, stored information,
+Create an empty Git repository. The Git repository's settings, stored information,
and more is stored in a directory (a folder) named ".git".
```bash
@@ -104,15 +106,12 @@ $ git init
### config
-To configure settings. Whether it be for the repository, the system itself, or global
-configurations.
+To configure settings. Whether it be for the repository, the system itself,
+or global configurations ( global config file is `~/.gitconfig` ).
```bash
# Print & Set Some Basic Config Variables (Global)
-$ git config --global user.email
-$ git config --global user.name
-
$ git config --global user.email "MyEmail@Zoho.com"
$ git config --global user.name "My Name"
```
@@ -142,10 +141,20 @@ $ git commit --help
$ git init --help
```
+### ignore files
+
+To intentionally untrack file(s) & folder(s) from git. Typically meant for
+private & temp files which would otherwise be shared in the repository.
+```bash
+$ echo "temp/" >> .gitignore
+$ echo "private_key" >> .gitignore
+```
+
+
### status
-To show differences between the index file (basically your working copy/repo) and the current
-HEAD commit.
+To show differences between the index file (basically your working copy/repo)
+and the current HEAD commit.
```bash
@@ -172,7 +181,8 @@ $ git add /path/to/file/HelloWorld.c
$ git add ./*.java
```
-This only adds a file to the staging area/index, it doesn't commit it to the working directory/repo.
+This only adds a file to the staging area/index, it doesn't commit it to the
+working directory/repo.
### branch
@@ -205,7 +215,8 @@ Updates all files in the working tree to match the version in the index, or spec
$ git checkout
# Checkout a specified branch
$ git checkout branchName
-# Create a new branch & switch to it, like: "git branch ; git checkout "
+# Create a new branch & switch to it
+# equivalent to "git branch ; git checkout "
$ git checkout -b newBranch
```
@@ -218,6 +229,10 @@ to a remote branch.
```bash
# Clone learnxinyminutes-docs
$ git clone https://github.com/adambard/learnxinyminutes-docs.git
+# shallow clone - faster cloning that pulls only latest snapshot
+$ git clone --depth 1 https://github.com/adambard/learnxinyminutes-docs.git
+# clone only a specific branch
+$ git clone -b master-cn https://github.com/adambard/learnxinyminutes-docs.git --single-branch
```
### commit
@@ -231,6 +246,9 @@ $ git commit -m "Added multiplyNumbers() function to HelloWorld.c"
# automatically stage modified or deleted files, except new files, and then commit
$ git commit -a -m "Modified foo.php and removed bar.php"
+
+# change last commit (this deletes previous commit with a fresh commit)
+$ git commit --amend -m "Correct message"
```
### diff
@@ -268,7 +286,7 @@ $ git config --global alias.g "grep --break --heading --line-number"
$ git grep 'variableName' -- '*.java'
# Search for a line that contains "arrayListName" and, "add" or "remove"
-$ git grep -e 'arrayListName' --and \( -e add -e remove \)
+$ git grep -e 'arrayListName' --and \( -e add -e remove \)
```
Google is your friend; for more examples
@@ -282,8 +300,8 @@ Display commits to the repository.
# Show all commits
$ git log
-# Show X number of commits
-$ git log -n 10
+# Show only commit message & ref
+$ git log --oneline
# Show merge commits only
$ git log --merges
@@ -303,7 +321,7 @@ $ git merge --no-ff branchName
### mv
-Rename or move a file
+Rename or move a file
```bash
# Renaming a file
@@ -338,7 +356,7 @@ $ git pull origin master --rebase
Push and merge changes from a branch to a remote & branch.
```bash
-# Push and merge changes from a local repo to a
+# Push and merge changes from a local repo to a
# remote named "origin" and "master" branch.
# git push
# git push => implicitly defaults to => git push origin master
@@ -347,23 +365,25 @@ $ git push origin master
# To link up current local branch with a remote branch, add -u flag:
$ git push -u origin master
# Now, anytime you want to push from that same local branch, use shortcut:
-$ git push
+$ git push
```
### stash
-Stashing takes the dirty state of your working directory and saves it on a stack of unfinished changes that you can reapply at any time.
+Stashing takes the dirty state of your working directory and saves it on a stack
+of unfinished changes that you can reapply at any time.
-Let's say you've been doing some work in your git repo, but you want to pull from the remote.
-Since you have dirty (uncommited) changes to some files, you are not able to run `git pull`.
-Instead, you can run `git stash` to save your changes onto a stack!
+Let's say you've been doing some work in your git repo, but you want to pull
+from the remote. Since you have dirty (uncommited) changes to some files, you
+are not able to run `git pull`. Instead, you can run `git stash` to save your
+changes onto a stack!
```bash
$ git stash
Saved working directory and index state \
"WIP on master: 049d078 added the index file"
HEAD is now at 049d078 added the index file
- (To restore them type "git stash apply")
+ (To restore them type "git stash apply")
```
Now you can pull!
@@ -410,7 +430,7 @@ Now you're ready to get back to work on your stuff!
[Additional Reading.](http://git-scm.com/book/en/v1/Git-Tools-Stashing)
-### rebase (caution)
+### rebase (caution)
Take all changes that were committed on one branch, and replay them onto another branch.
*Do not rebase commits that you have pushed to a public repo*.
diff --git a/groovy.html.markdown b/groovy.html.markdown
index 519f36ce..492c1ba2 100644
--- a/groovy.html.markdown
+++ b/groovy.html.markdown
@@ -99,7 +99,7 @@ technologies.sort()
// To sort without mutating original, you can do:
sortedTechnologies = technologies.sort( false )
-/*** Manipulating Lists ***/
+/*** Manipulating Lists ***/e
//Replace all elements in the list
Collections.replaceAll(technologies, 'Gradle', 'gradle')
@@ -200,6 +200,14 @@ def y = 10
def x = (y > 1) ? "worked" : "failed"
assert x == "worked"
+//Groovy supports 'The Elvis Operator' too!
+//Instead of using the ternary operator:
+
+displayName = user.name ? user.name : 'Anonymous'
+
+//We can write it:
+displayName = user.name ?: 'Anonymous'
+
//For loop
//Iterate over a range
def x = 0
@@ -422,6 +430,3 @@ Join a [Groovy user group](http://www.groovy-lang.org/usergroups.html)
[1] http://roshandawrani.wordpress.com/2010/10/18/groovy-new-feature-closures-can-now-memorize-their-results/
[2] http://www.solutionsiq.com/resources/agileiq-blog/bid/72880/Programming-with-Groovy-Trampoline-and-Memoize
[3] http://mrhaki.blogspot.mx/2011/05/groovy-goodness-cache-closure-results.html
-
-
-
diff --git a/hack.html.markdown b/hack.html.markdown
index 632fc705..b9730dc0 100644
--- a/hack.html.markdown
+++ b/hack.html.markdown
@@ -2,6 +2,7 @@
language: Hack
contributors:
- ["Stephen Holdaway", "https://github.com/stecman"]
+ - ["David Lima", "https://github.com/davelima"]
filename: learnhack.hh
---
@@ -152,7 +153,7 @@ class ArgumentPromotion
private bool $isAwesome) {}
}
-class WithoutArugmentPromotion
+class WithoutArgumentPromotion
{
public string $name;
@@ -169,9 +170,9 @@ class WithoutArugmentPromotion
}
-// Co-oprerative multi-tasking
+// Co-operative multi-tasking
//
-// Two new keywords "async" and "await" can be used to perform mutli-tasking
+// Two new keywords "async" and "await" can be used to perform multi-tasking
// Note that this does not involve threads - it just allows transfer of control
async function cooperativePrint(int $start, int $end) : Awaitable
{
diff --git a/id-id/xml-id.html.markdown b/id-id/xml-id.html.markdown
index 8e8cdf4e..c1e985aa 100644
--- a/id-id/xml-id.html.markdown
+++ b/id-id/xml-id.html.markdown
@@ -5,6 +5,7 @@ contributors:
- ["João Farias", "https://github.com/JoaoGFarias"]
translators:
- ["Rizky Luthfianto", "https://github.com/rilut"]
+lang: id-id
---
XML adalah bahasa markup yang dirancang untuk menyimpan dan mengirim data.
diff --git a/java.html.markdown b/java.html.markdown
index 5e580f33..34da903a 100644
--- a/java.html.markdown
+++ b/java.html.markdown
@@ -50,10 +50,30 @@ public class LearnJava {
System.out.printf("pi = %.5f", Math.PI); // => pi = 3.14159
///////////////////////////////////////
- // Types & Variables
+ // Variables
///////////////////////////////////////
-
+
+ /*
+ * Variable Declaration
+ */
// Declare a variable using
+ int fooInt;
+ // Declare multiple variables of the same type , ,
+ int fooInt1, fooInt2, fooInt3;
+
+ /*
+ * Variable Initialization
+ */
+
+ // Initialize a variable using =
+ int fooInt = 1;
+ // Initialize multiple variables of same type with same value , , =
+ int fooInt1, fooInt2, fooInt3;
+ fooInt1 = fooInt2 = fooInt3 = 1;
+
+ /*
+ * Variable types
+ */
// Byte - 8-bit signed two's complement integer
// (-128 <= byte <= 127)
byte fooByte = 100;
@@ -316,6 +336,33 @@ public class LearnJava {
// toString returns this Object's string representation.
System.out.println("trek info: " + trek.toString());
+
+ // Double Brace Initialization
+ // The Java Language has no syntax for how to create static Collections
+ // in an easy way. Usually you end up in the following way:
+
+ private static final Set COUNTRIES = new HashSet();
+ static {
+ validCodes.add("DENMARK");
+ validCodes.add("SWEDEN");
+ validCodes.add("FINLAND");
+ }
+
+ // But there's a nifty way to achive the same thing in an
+ // easier way, by using something that is called Double Brace
+ // Initialization.
+
+ private static final Set COUNTRIES = HashSet() {{
+ add("DENMARK");
+ add("SWEDEN");
+ add("FINLAND");
+ }}
+
+ // The first brace is creating an new AnonymousInnerClass and the
+ // second one declares and instance initializer block. This block
+ // is called with the anonymous inner class is created.
+ // This does not only work for Collections, it works for all
+ // non-final classes.
} // End main method
} // End LearnJava class
@@ -466,6 +513,7 @@ public class ExampleClass extends ExampleClassParent implements InterfaceOne,
}
}
+<<<<<<< HEAD
// There are also two special types of classes, abstract and final.
// Marking a class as abstract means that it contains abstract methods that must
@@ -501,6 +549,73 @@ public final class SaberToothedCat extends Mammal
{
return "Smilodon fatalis";
}
+=======
+
+// Abstract Classes
+// Abstract Class declaration syntax
+// abstract extends {
+// // Constants and variables
+// // Method declarations
+// }
+
+// Methods can't have bodies in an interface, unless the method is
+// static. Also variables are NOT final by default, unlike an interface.
+// Also abstract classes CAN have the "main" method.
+// Abstract classes solve these problems.
+
+public abstract class Animal
+{
+ public abstract void makeSound();
+
+ // Method can have a body
+ public void eat()
+ {
+ System.out.println("I am an animal and I am Eating.");
+ // Note: We can access private variable here.
+ age = 30;
+ }
+
+ // No need to initialize, however in an interface
+ // a variable is implicitly final and hence has
+ // to be initialized.
+ private int age;
+
+ public void printAge()
+ {
+ System.out.println(age);
+ }
+
+ // Abstract classes can have main function.
+ public static void main(String[] args)
+ {
+ System.out.println("I am abstract");
+ }
+}
+
+class Dog extends Animal
+{
+ // Note still have to override the abstract methods in the
+ // abstract class.
+ @Override
+ public void makeSound()
+ {
+ System.out.println("Bark");
+ // age = 30; ==> ERROR! age is private to Animal
+ }
+
+ // NOTE: You will get an error if you used the
+ // @Override annotation here, since java doesn't allow
+ // overriding of static methods.
+ // What is happening here is called METHOD HIDING.
+ // Check out this awesome SO post: http://stackoverflow.com/questions/16313649/
+ public static void main(String[] args)
+ {
+ Dog pluto = new Dog();
+ pluto.makeSound();
+ pluto.eat();
+ pluto.printAge();
+ }
+>>>>>>> adambard/master
}
```
diff --git a/json.html.markdown b/json.html.markdown
index f57b82b8..47a8cb21 100644
--- a/json.html.markdown
+++ b/json.html.markdown
@@ -49,7 +49,7 @@ going to be 100% valid JSON. Luckily, it kind of speaks for itself.
"alternative style": {
"comment": "check this out!"
- , "comma position": "doesn't matter - as long as its before the value, then its valid"
+ , "comma position": "doesn't matter - as long as it's before the value, then it's valid"
, "another comment": "how nice"
},
diff --git a/ko-kr/javascript-kr.html.markdown b/ko-kr/javascript-kr.html.markdown
index 4ca3bb5c..9561e80c 100644
--- a/ko-kr/javascript-kr.html.markdown
+++ b/ko-kr/javascript-kr.html.markdown
@@ -387,9 +387,6 @@ myNumber === myNumberObj // = false
if (0){
// 0은 거짓이라서 이 코드는 실행되지 않습니다.
}
-if (Number(0)){
- // Number(0)은 참이라서 이 코드는 *실행됩니다*.
-}
// 하지만 래퍼 객체와 일반 내장 함수는 프로토타입을 공유하기 때문에
// 가령 문자열에 실제로 기능을 추가할 수 있습니다.
diff --git a/markdown.html.markdown b/markdown.html.markdown
index 6d19710f..acb808ea 100644
--- a/markdown.html.markdown
+++ b/markdown.html.markdown
@@ -160,7 +160,7 @@ def foobar
end
\`\`\`
-<-- The above text doesn't require indenting, plus Github will use syntax
+
diff --git a/php.html.markdown b/php.html.markdown
index 3fcce264..93066284 100644
--- a/php.html.markdown
+++ b/php.html.markdown
@@ -215,6 +215,14 @@ assert($a !== $d);
assert(1 === '1');
assert(1 !== '1');
+// spaceship operator since PHP 7
+$a = 100;
+$b = 1000;
+
+echo $a <=> $a; // 0 since they are equal
+echo $a <=> $b; // -1 since $a < $b
+echo $b <=> $a; // 1 since $b > $a
+
// Variables can be converted between types, depending on their usage.
$integer = 1;
@@ -264,6 +272,18 @@ if (false) {
// ternary operator
print (false ? 'Does not get printed' : 'Does');
+// ternary shortcut operator since PHP 5.3
+// equivalent of "$x ? $x : 'Does'""
+$x = false;
+print($x ?: 'Does');
+
+// null coalesce operator since php 7
+$a = null;
+$b = 'Does print';
+echo $a ?? 'a is not set'; // prints 'a is not set'
+echo $b ?? 'b is not set'; // prints 'Does print'
+
+
$x = 0;
if ($x === '0') {
print 'Does not print';
@@ -689,4 +709,4 @@ If you're coming from a language with good package management, check out
[Composer](http://getcomposer.org/).
For common standards, visit the PHP Framework Interoperability Group's
-[PSR standards](https://github.com/php-fig/fig-standards).
+[PSR standards](https://github.com/php-fig/fig-standards).
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/pt-br/brainfuck-pt.html.markdown b/pt-br/brainfuck-pt.html.markdown
index c7ce55ee..9e4b458d 100644
--- a/pt-br/brainfuck-pt.html.markdown
+++ b/pt-br/brainfuck-pt.html.markdown
@@ -5,10 +5,11 @@ contributors:
- ["Mathias Bynens", "http://mathiasbynens.be/"]
translators:
- ["Suzane Sant Ana", "http://github.com/suuuzi"]
+ - ["Rodrigo Muniz", "http://github.com/muniz95"]
lang: pt-br
---
-Brainfuck (em letras minúsculas, eceto no início de frases) é uma linguagem de
+Brainfuck (em letras minúsculas, exceto no início de frases) é uma linguagem de
programação Turing-completa extremamente simples com apenas 8 comandos.
```
@@ -18,7 +19,7 @@ Brainfuck é representado por um vetor com 30 000 células inicializadas em zero
e um ponteiro de dados que aponta para a célula atual.
Existem 8 comandos:
-+ : Incrementa o vaor da célula atual em 1.
++ : Incrementa o valor da célula atual em 1.
- : Decrementa o valor da célula atual em 1.
> : Move o ponteiro de dados para a célula seguinte (célula à direita).
< : Move o ponteiro de dados para a célula anterior (célula à esquerda).
diff --git a/pt-br/hack-pt.html.markdown b/pt-br/hack-pt.html.markdown
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..7c938149
--- /dev/null
+++ b/pt-br/hack-pt.html.markdown
@@ -0,0 +1,316 @@
+---
+language: Hack
+contributors:
+ - ["Stephen Holdaway", "https://github.com/stecman"]
+ - ["David Lima", "https://github.com/davelima"]
+translators:
+ - ["David Lima", "https://github.com/davelima"]
+lang: pt-br
+filename: learnhack-pt.hh
+---
+
+Hack é uma linguagem baseada no PHP e roda numa máquina virtual chamada HHVM.
+Hack é quase completamente interoperável com códigos PHP existentes e adiciona
+alguns recursos úteis de linguagens estaticamente tipadas.
+
+Somente recursos específicos da linguagem Hack serão abordados aqui. Detalhes
+sobre a sintaxe do PHP estão disponíveis no
+[artigo PHP](http://learnxinyminutes.com/docs/php/) neste site.
+
+```php
+id = $id;
+ }
+}
+
+
+// Funções anônimas (lambdas)
+$multiplicador = 5;
+array_map($y ==> $y * $multiplicador, [1, 2, 3]);
+
+
+// Genéricos
+class Caixa
+{
+ protected T $dados;
+
+ public function __construct(T $dados) {
+ $this->dados = $dados;
+ }
+
+ public function pegaDados(): T {
+ return $this->dados;
+ }
+}
+
+function abreCaixa(Caixa $caixa) : int
+{
+ return $caixa->pegaDados();
+}
+
+
+// Formas
+//
+// Hack adiciona o conceito de formas para definir arrays com uma estrutura
+// e tipos de dados garantidos
+type Point2D = shape('x' => int, 'y' => int);
+
+function distancia(Point2D $a, Point2D $b) : float
+{
+ return sqrt(pow($b['x'] - $a['x'], 2) + pow($b['y'] - $a['y'], 2));
+}
+
+distancia(
+ shape('x' => -1, 'y' => 5),
+ shape('x' => 2, 'y' => 50)
+);
+
+
+// Pseudônimos de tipos
+//
+// Hack adiciona vários recursos para criação de pseudônimos, tornando tipos complexos
+// mais fáceis de entender
+newtype VectorArray = array>;
+
+// Um tuple contendo dois inteiros
+newtype Point = (int, int);
+
+function adicionaPontos(Point $p1, Point $p2) : Point
+{
+ return tuple($p1[0] + $p2[0], $p1[1] + $p2[1]);
+}
+
+adicionaPontos(
+ tuple(1, 2),
+ tuple(5, 6)
+);
+
+
+// enums em classes
+enum TipoDePista : int
+{
+ Estrada = 0;
+ Rua = 1;
+ Alameda = 2;
+ Avenida = 3;
+}
+
+function getTipoDePista() : TipoDePista
+{
+ return TipoDePista::Alameda;
+}
+
+
+// Especificação de argumentos no construtor (Argument Promotion)
+//
+// Para evitar que propriedades sejam definidas em mais de um lugar, e
+// construtores que só definem propriedades, o Hack adiciona uma sintaxe para
+// definir as propriedades e o construtor ao mesmo tempo.
+class ArgumentPromotion
+{
+ public function __construct(public string $nome,
+ protected int $idade,
+ private bool $legal) {}
+}
+
+class SemArgumentPromotion
+{
+ public string $nome;
+
+ protected int $idade;
+
+ private bool $legal;
+
+ public function __construct(string $nome, int $idade, bool $legal)
+ {
+ $this->nome = $nome;
+ $this->idade = $idade;
+ $this->legal = $legal;
+ }
+}
+
+
+// Multi-tarefas cooperativo
+//
+// Duas novas palavras-chave ("async" e "await") podem ser usadas para
+// trabalhar com multi-tarefas.
+// Obs. Isto não envolve threads - apenas permite a transferência de controle
+async function printCooperativo(int $inicio, int $fim) : Awaitable
+{
+ for ($i = $inicio; $i <= $fim; $i++) {
+ echo "$i ";
+
+ // Permite que outras tarefas façam algo
+ await RescheduleWaitHandle::create(RescheduleWaitHandle::QUEUE_DEFAULT, 0);
+ }
+}
+
+// Imprime "1 4 7 2 5 8 3 6 9"
+AwaitAllWaitHandle::fromArray([
+ printCooperativo(1, 3),
+ printCooperativo(4, 6),
+ printCooperativo(7, 9)
+])->getWaitHandle()->join();
+
+
+// Atributos
+//
+// Atributos são uma forma de definir metadados para funções.
+// Hack tem alguns atributos especiais que possuem comportamentos úteis.
+
+// O atributo especial __Memoize faz com que o resultado da função fique em cache
+<<__Memoize>>
+function tarefaDemorada() : ?string
+{
+ return file_get_contents('http://exemplo.com');
+}
+
+// O corpo da função só é executado uma vez aqui:
+tarefaDemorada();
+tarefaDemorada();
+
+
+// O atributo especial __ConsistentConstruct faz com que o Hack certifique-se
+// de que a assinatura do construtor seja a mesma em todas as subclasses
+<<__ConsistentConstruct>>
+class FooConsistente
+{
+ public function __construct(int $x, float $y)
+ {
+ // ...
+ }
+
+ public function algumMetodo()
+ {
+ // ...
+ }
+}
+
+class BarConsistente extends FooConsistente
+{
+ public function __construct(int $x, float $y)
+ {
+ // O verificador de tipos do Hack exige que os construtores pai
+ // sejam chamados
+ parent::__construct($x, $y);
+
+ // ...
+ }
+
+ // A anotação __Override é uma anotação opcional que faz com que o
+ // verificador de tipos do Hack sobrescreva um método em uma classe pai
+ // ou um trait. Sem __Override, definir este método causará um erro,
+ // pois ele já foi definido na classe pai (FooConsistente):
+ <<__Override>>
+ public function algumMetodo()
+ {
+ // ...
+ }
+}
+
+class SubclasseFooInvalida extends FooConsistente
+{
+ // Caso o construtor não combine com o construtor da classe pai, o
+ // verificador de tipos acusará um erro:
+ //
+ // "Este objeto é incompatível com o objeto FooConsistente porque algum(ns)
+ // dos seus métodos são incompatíveis"
+ //
+ public function __construct(float $x)
+ {
+ // ...
+ }
+
+ // Usar a anotação __Override em um método que não existe na classe pai
+ // causará um erro do verificador de tipos:
+ // "SubclasseFooInvalida::outroMetodo() está marcada para sobrescrever;
+ // nenhuma definição não-privada foi encontrada ou a classe pai foi
+ // definida em código não->
+ public function outroMetodo()
+ {
+ // ...
+ }
+}
+
+
+// Traits podem implementar interfaces (não suportado pelo PHP)
+interface InterfaceGatinho
+{
+ public function brinca() : void;
+}
+
+trait TraitGato implements InterfaceGatinho
+{
+ public function brinca() : void
+ {
+ // ...
+ }
+}
+
+class Samuel
+{
+ use TraitGato;
+}
+
+
+$gato = new Samuel();
+$gato instanceof InterfaceGatinho === true; // True
+
+```
+
+## Mais informações
+
+Visite a [documentação do Hack](http://docs.hhvm.com/manual/en/hacklangref.php)
+para ver explicações detalhadas dos recursos que Hack adiciona ao PHP, ou o [site oficial do Hack](http://hanlang.org/)
+para outras informações.
+
+Visite o [site oficial do HHVM](http://hhvm.com/) para aprender a instalar o HHVM.
+
+Visite [este artigo](http://docs.hhvm.com/manual/en/hack.unsupported.php) para ver
+os recursos do PHP que o Hack não suporta e ver incompatibilidades entre Hack e PHP.
diff --git a/pt-br/javascript-pt.html.markdown b/pt-br/javascript-pt.html.markdown
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..406042fa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/pt-br/javascript-pt.html.markdown
@@ -0,0 +1,547 @@
+---
+language: javascript
+contributors:
+ - ["Adam Brenecki", "http://adam.brenecki.id.au"]
+ - ["Ariel Krakowski", "http://www.learneroo.com"]
+translators:
+ - ["Willian Justen", "http://willianjusten.com.br"]
+lang: pt-br
+---
+
+JavaScript foi criada por Brendan Eich, funcionário da Netscape na época, em 1995. Ela
+foi originalmente criada para ser uma linguagem de script para websites,
+complementando o uso de Java para aplicações web mais complexas, mas a sua
+integração com páginas web e seu suporte nativo nos browsers fez com que
+ela se tornasse mais comum que Java no frontend web.
+
+Javascript não é somente limitada a browsers web, existindo o Node.js,
+que é um projeto que fornece um interpretador baseado no motor V8 do Google
+Chrome e está se tornando cada vez mais famoso.
+
+Feedback são muito apreciados! Você me encontrar em
+[@adambrenecki](https://twitter.com/adambrenecki), ou
+[adam@brenecki.id.au](mailto:adam@brenecki.id.au).
+
+```js
+// Comentários são como em C. Comentários de uma linha começam com duas barras,
+/* e comentários de múltplas linhas começam com barra-asterisco
+ e fecham com asterisco-barra */
+
+// comandos podem ser terminados com ;
+facaAlgo();
+
+// ... mas eles não precisam ser, o ponto-e-vírgula é automaticamente
+// inserido quando há uma nova linha, exceto alguns casos.
+facaAlgo()
+
+// Como esses casos podem causar resultados inesperados, vamos continuar
+// a usar ponto-e-vírgula neste guia.
+
+///////////////////////////////////
+// 1. Números, Strings e Operadores
+
+// Javascript tem um tipo de número (que é o 64-bit IEEE 754 double).
+// Doubles tem uma mantissa 52-bit, que é suficiente para guardar inteiros
+// acima de 9✕10¹⁵ precisamente.
+3; // = 3
+1.5; // = 1.5
+
+// A aritmética básica funciona como seria de se esperar.
+1 + 1; // = 2
+0.1 + 0.2; // = 0.30000000000000004
+8 - 1; // = 7
+10 * 2; // = 20
+35 / 5; // = 7
+
+// Inclusive divisão desigual.
+5 / 2; // = 2.5
+
+// Operadores Bitwise também funcionam; quando você faz uma operação bitwise
+// seu float é convertido para um int de até 32 bits.
+1 << 2; // = 4
+
+// A precedência é aplicada com parênteses.
+(1 + 3) * 2; // = 8
+
+// Existem três especiais valores não-é-número-real:
+Infinity; // resultado de 1/0
+-Infinity; // resultado de -1/0
+NaN; // resultado de 0/0
+
+// Existe também o tipo booleano.
+true;
+false;
+
+// Strings são criados com ' ou ".
+'abc';
+"Olá, mundo";
+
+// Negação usa o símbolo !
+!true; // = false
+!false; // = true
+
+// Igualdade é o sinal de ===
+1 === 1; // = true
+2 === 1; // = false
+
+// Desigualdade é o sinal de !==
+1 !== 1; // = false
+2 !== 1; // = true
+
+// Mais comparações
+1 < 10; // = true
+1 > 10; // = false
+2 <= 2; // = true
+2 >= 2; // = true
+
+// Strings são concatenadas com +
+"Olá " + "mundo!"; // = "Olá mundo!"
+
+// e comparadas com < e >
+"a" < "b"; // = true
+
+// A comparação de tipos não é feita com o uso de ==...
+"5" == 5; // = true
+null == undefined; // = true
+
+// ...a menos que use ===
+"5" === 5; // = false
+null === undefined; // = false
+
+// ...isso pode resultar em comportamentos estranhos...
+13 + !0; // 14
+"13" + !0; // '13true'
+
+// Você pode acessar caracteres de uma String usando o `charAt`
+"Isto é uma String".charAt(0); // = 'I'
+
+// ...ou usar `substring` para pegar pedaços maiores.
+"Olá mundo".substring(0, 3); // = "Olá"
+
+// `length` é uma propriedade, portanto não use ().
+"Olá".length; // = 3
+
+// Existe também o `null` e o `undefined`.
+null; // usado para indicar um valor não considerado
+undefined; // usado para indicar um valor que não é a atualmente definido
+ // (entretando `undefined` é considerado de fato um valor
+
+// false, null, undefined, NaN, 0 and "" são valores falsos;
+// qualquer outro valor é verdadeiro
+// Note que 0 é falso e "0" é verdadeiro, até mesmo 0 == "0".
+
+///////////////////////////////////
+// 2. Variáveis, Arrays e Objetos
+
+// Variáveis são declaradas com a palavra-chave `var`. O Javascript é
+// dinâmicamente tipado, portanto você não precisa especificar o tipo.
+// Atribuições usam um simples caracter de `=`.
+var someVar = 5;
+
+// se você deixar de colocar a palavra-chave var, você não irá receber um erro...
+someOtherVar = 10;
+
+// ...mas sua variável será criada no escopo global, não no escopo em que você
+// definiu ela.
+
+// Variáveis declaradas sem receberem um valor são definidas como `undefined`.
+var someThirdVar; // = undefined
+
+// Existe um shorthand para operações matemáticas em variáveis:
+someVar += 5; // equivalente a someVar = someVar + 5; someVar é 10 agora
+someVar *= 10; // agora someVar é 100
+
+// e um para adição e subtração de 1
+someVar++; // agora someVar é 101
+someVar--; // volta para 100
+
+// Arrays são listas ordenadas de valores, de qualquer tipo.
+var myArray = ["Olá", 45, true];
+
+// Seus membros podem ser acessados usando a sintaxe de colchetes.
+// O indíce de um Array começa pelo 0.
+myArray[1]; // = 45
+
+// Arrays são mutáveis e de tamanho variável.
+myArray.push("World");
+myArray.length; // = 4
+
+// Adicionar/modificar em um índice específico
+myArray[3] = "Hello";
+
+// Objetos de Javascript são equivalentes aos dicionários ou maps de outras
+// linguagens: uma coleção não ordenada de pares chave-valor.
+var myObj = {chave1: "Olá", chave2: "Mundo"};
+
+// Chaves são strings, mas as aspas não são necessárias se elas são
+// identificadores válidos no Javascript. Valores podem ser de qualquer tipo.
+var myObj = {myKey: "myValue", "my other key": 4};
+
+// Atributos de objetos também podem ser acessados com a sintaxe de colchetes.
+myObj["my other key"]; // = 4
+
+// ... ou usando a sintaxe de ponto, passando a chave que é um identificador
+// válido.
+myObj.myKey; // = "myValue"
+
+// Objetos são mutáveis, valores podem ser modificados e novas chaves
+// adicionadas.
+myObj.myThirdKey = true;
+
+// Se você tentar acessar um valor que não foi determinado ainda, você irá
+// receber `undefined`.
+myObj.myFourthKey; // = undefined
+
+///////////////////////////////////
+// 3. Lógica e Estruturas de Controle
+
+// A sintaxe para essa seção é quase idêntica a maioria das linguagens.
+
+// The `if` structure works as you'd expect.
+// A estrutura `if` funciona como deveria ser.
+var count = 1
+if (count == 3){
+ // executa se count é 3
+} else if (count == 4){
+ // executa se count é 4
+} else {
+ // executa se count não é 3 nem 4
+}
+
+// Como se faz um `while`.
+while (true){
+ // Um loop infinito!
+}
+
+// Os loops do-while são como os loops de while, exceto quando eles sempre
+// executam pelo menos uma vez.
+do {
+ input = getInput();
+} while (!isValid(input))
+
+// The `for` loop is the same as C and Java:
+// initialisation; continue condition; iteration.
+
+// O loop `for` é o mesmo de C e Java:
+// inicialização, condição para continuar; iteração
+for (var i = 0; i < 5; i++){
+ // vai rodar cinco vezes
+}
+
+// && é o `e` lógico , || é o `ou` lógico
+if (house.size == "big" && house.colour == "blue"){
+ house.contains = "bear";
+}
+if (cor == "red" || cor == "blue"){
+ // cor é vermelha OU azul
+}
+
+// && e || "pequeno circuito", é útil para determinar valores padrões.
+var name = otherName || "padrão";
+
+// O `switch` checa pela igualdade com `===`.
+// Use `break` após cada `case`
+grade = 'B';
+switch (grade) {
+ case 'A':
+ console.log("Great job");
+ break;
+ case 'B':
+ console.log("OK job");
+ break;
+ case 'C':
+ console.log("You can do better");
+ break;
+ default:
+ console.log("Oy vey");
+ break;
+}
+
+
+///////////////////////////////////
+// 4. Funções, Escopos e Closures
+
+// Funções Javascript são declaradas com a palavra-chave `function`.
+function myFunction(thing){
+ return thing.toUpperCase();
+}
+myFunction("foo"); // = "FOO"
+
+// Repare que o valor a ser retornado deve começar na mesma linha que
+// a palavra-chave `return`, senão você sempre irá retornar `undefined`
+// visto que o ponto-e-vírgula é inserido automáticamente nas quebras de
+// linha. Preste atenção quando usar o estilo Allman.
+function myFunction()
+{
+ return // <- ponto-e-vírgula adicionado automaticamente aqui
+ {
+ thisIsAn: 'object literal'
+ }
+}
+myFunction(); // = undefined
+
+// Funções Javascript são objetos de primeira classe, portanto elas podem
+// ser atribuídas a nomes de variáveis e serem passadas para outras funções
+// como argumentos - por exemplo, quando criamos um manipulador de eventos:
+function myFunction(){
+ // este código será chamado em 5 segundos
+}
+setTimeout(myFunction, 5000);
+// Nota: `setTimeout` não é parte da linguagem Javascript, mas é provido pelos
+// browsers e o Node.js.
+
+// Objetos de funções não precisam nem serem declarados com nome - você pode
+// escrever a definição de uma função anônima diretamente nos argumentos de
+// outra função.
+setTimeout(function(){
+ // este código será chamado em 5 segundos
+}, 5000);
+
+// O Javascript tem escopo de função; as funções tem seu próprio escopo,
+// mas outros blocos não.
+if (true){
+ var i = 5;
+}
+i; // = 5 - não `undefined` como você esperaria numa linguagem de blogo-escopo
+
+// Isso levou a padrão comum chamado de IIFE (Imediately Invoked Function
+// Expression) ou (Expressão de Função Invocada Imediatamente), que previne
+// que variáveis temporárias vazem para o escopo global.
+(function(){
+ var temporary = 5;
+ // Nós podemos acessar o escopo global definindo o "objeto global", que
+ // no browser vai ser sempre `window`. O objeto global pode ter um nome
+ // diferente para ambiente não-browser como o Node.js.
+ window.permanent = 10;
+})();
+temporary; // levanta um erro de referência inexiste
+permanent; // = 10
+
+// Uma das principais características do Javascript é a closure. Que é
+// uma função definida dentro de outra função, a função interna pode acessar
+// todas as variáveis da função externa, mesmo depois da função de fora
+// finalizar sua execução.
+function sayHelloInFiveSeconds(name){
+ var prompt = "Hello, " + name + "!";
+
+ // Funções internas são colocadas no escopo local por padrão, assim como
+ // se fossem declaradas com `var`.
+ function inner(){
+ alert(prompt);
+ }
+ setTimeout(inner, 5000);
+ // `setTimeout` é assíncrono, portanto a função `sayHelloInFiveSeconds`
+ // vai sair imediatamente, e o `setTimeout` irá chamar a interna depois.
+ // Entretanto. como a interna é fechada dentro de "sayHelloInFiveSeconds",
+ // a interna permanece podendo acessar a variável `prompt` quando depois
+ // de chamada.
+}
+sayHelloInFiveSeconds("Adam"); // Vai abrir um popup com "Hello, Adam!" em 5s
+
+///////////////////////////////////
+// 5. Mais sobre Objetos; Construtores e Prototypes
+
+// Objetos podem conter funções.
+var myObj = {
+ myFunc: function(){
+ return "Olá mundo!";
+ }
+};
+myObj.myFunc(); // = "Olá mundo!"
+
+// Quando uma função ligada a um objeto é chamada, ela pode acessar o objeto
+// da qual foi ligada usando a palavra-chave `this`.
+myObj = {
+ myString: "Olá mundo!",
+ myFunc: function(){
+ return this.myString;
+ }
+};
+myObj.myFunc(); // = "Olá mundo!"
+
+// O `this` só funciona para dentro do escopo do objeto, portanto, se chamarmos
+// um método do objeto fora de seu escopo, este não irá funcionar.
+var myFunc = myObj.myFunc;
+myFunc(); // = undefined
+
+// Inversamente, uma função pode ser atribuída a um objeto e ganhar a acesso
+// através do `this`, até mesmo se ela não for chamada quando foi definida.
+var myOtherFunc = function(){
+ return this.myString.toUpperCase();
+}
+myObj.myOtherFunc = myOtherFunc;
+myObj.myOtherFunc(); // = "OLÁ MUNDO!"
+
+// Nós podemos também especificar um contexto onde a função irá executar,
+// usando o `call` ou `apply`.
+
+var anotherFunc = function(s){
+ return this.myString + s;
+}
+anotherFunc.call(myObj, " E Olá Lua!"); // = "Olá mundo! E Olá Lua!"
+
+// A função `apply` é praticamente a mesma coisa, mas ela pega um array
+// como lista de argumentos.
+
+anotherFunc.apply(myObj, [" E Olá Sol!"]); // = "Olá mundo! E Olá Sol!"
+
+// Isto é util quando trabalhamos com uma função que aceita uma sequência de
+// argumentos e você quer passar um array.
+
+Math.min(42, 6, 27); // = 6
+Math.min([42, 6, 27]); // = NaN (uh-oh!)
+Math.min.apply(Math, [42, 6, 27]); // = 6
+
+// Mas, o `call` e `apply` são somente temporários. Quando você quiser que
+// permaneça sempre no escopo, use `bind`.
+
+var boundFunc = anotherFunc.bind(myObj);
+boundFunc(" E Olá Saturno!"); // = "Olá mundo! E Olá Saturno!"
+
+// `bind` também pode ser usado para parcialmente aplicar (curry) uma função.
+
+var product = function(a, b){ return a * b; }
+var doubler = product.bind(this, 2);
+doubler(8); // = 16
+
+// Quando você invoca uma função com a palavra-chave `new`, um novo objeto
+// é criado, e fica disponível para a função pela palavra-chave `this`.
+// Funções são desenhadas para serem invocadas como se invocam os construtores.
+
+var MyConstructor = function(){
+ this.myNumber = 5;
+}
+myNewObj = new MyConstructor(); // = {myNumber: 5}
+myNewObj.myNumber; // = 5
+
+// Todo objeto JavaScript possui um `prototype`. Quando você tenta acessar
+// uma propriedade de um objeto que não existe no objeto atual, o interpretador
+// vai olhar imediatamente para o seu prototype.
+
+// Algumas implementações em JS deixam você acessar o objeto prototype com a
+// propriedade mágica `__proto__`. Enquanto isso é util para explicar
+// prototypes, não é parte de um padrão; nós vamos falar de algumas formas de
+// usar prototypes depois.
+
+var myObj = {
+ myString: "Olá Mundo!"
+};
+var myPrototype = {
+ meaningOfLife: 42,
+ myFunc: function(){
+ return this.myString.toLowerCase()
+ }
+};
+
+myObj.__proto__ = myPrototype;
+myObj.meaningOfLife; // = 42
+
+// This works for functions, too.
+// Isto funciona para funções, também.
+myObj.myFunc(); // = "olá mundo!"
+
+// É claro, se sua propriedade não está em seu prototype,
+// o prototype do prototype será procurado e por aí vai.
+myPrototype.__proto__ = {
+ myBoolean: true
+};
+myObj.myBoolean; // = true
+
+// Não há cópia envolvida aqui; cada objeto guarda uma referência do
+// prototype. Isso significa que podemos alterar o prototype e nossas mudanças
+// serão refletidas em qualquer lugar.
+myPrototype.meaningOfLife = 43;
+myObj.meaningOfLife; // = 43
+
+
+// Nós mencionamos que o `__proto__` não é uma forma padrão, e não há uma
+// forma padrão de mudar o prototype de um objeto já existente. Entretanto,
+// existem duas formas de se criar um objeto com um dado prototype.
+
+// A primeira forma é `Object.create`, que é uma adição recente do JS,
+// e ainda não está disponível em todas as implementações.
+var myObj = Object.create(myPrototype);
+myObj.meaningOfLife; // = 43
+
+// A segunda forma, que funciona em qualquer lugar, é feita com construtores.
+// Construtores tem uma propriedade chamada prototype. Este *não* é o prototype
+// do construtor em si; ao invés disso, ele é o prototype dos novos objetos
+// criados pelo construtor.
+MyConstructor.prototype = {
+ myNumber: 5,
+ getMyNumber: function(){
+ return this.myNumber;
+ }
+};
+var myNewObj2 = new MyConstructor();
+myNewObj2.getMyNumber(); // = 5
+myNewObj2.myNumber = 6
+myNewObj2.getMyNumber(); // = 6
+
+// Tipos originais da linguagem como strings e números também possuem
+// construtores equivalentes.
+var myNumber = 12;
+var myNumberObj = new Number(12);
+myNumber == myNumberObj; // = true
+
+// Exceto, que eles não são totalmente equivalentes.
+typeof myNumber; // = 'number'
+typeof myNumberObj; // = 'object'
+myNumber === myNumberObj; // = false
+if (0){
+ // O código não vai executar, porque 0 é um valor falso.
+}
+
+// Entretanto, esses objetos encapsulados e as funções originais compartilham
+// um mesmo prototype, portanto você pode adicionar funcionalidades a uma string,
+// por exemplo.
+String.prototype.firstCharacter = function(){
+ return this.charAt(0);
+}
+"abc".firstCharacter(); // = "a"
+
+// Esse fato é usado para criar os chamados `polyfills`, que implementam
+// uma nova característica do Javascript em uma versão mais velha, para que
+// assim funcionem em ambientes mais velhos como browsers ultrapassados.
+
+// Havíamos mencionado que `Object.create` não estava ainda disponível em
+// todos as implementações, mas nós podemos usá-lo com esse polyfill:
+if (Object.create === undefined){ // don't overwrite it if it exists
+ Object.create = function(proto){
+ // faz um construtor temporário com o prototype certo
+ var Constructor = function(){};
+ Constructor.prototype = proto;
+ // então utiliza o new para criar um objeto prototype apropriado
+ return new Constructor();
+ }
+}
+```
+
+## Leitura Adicional
+
+O [Mozilla Developer
+Network](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript) dispõe de uma
+excelente documentação sobre Javascript e seu uso nos browsers. E mais,
+é uma wiki, portanto conforme você vai aprendendo, mais você pode ir ajudando
+os outros compartilhando do seu conhecimento.
+
+[Uma re-introdução do JavaScript pela MDN]
+(https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/A_re-introduction_to_JavaScript)
+cobre muito dos conceitos abordados aqui em mais detalhes. Este guia fala
+somente sobre a linguagem JavaScript em si; se você quiser aprender mais
+sobre e como usar o JavaScript em páginas na web, comece aprendendo sobre
+[Document Object
+Model](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Using_the_W3C_DOM_Level_1_Core)
+
+[Aprenda Javascript por Exemplos e com Desafios](http://www.learneroo.com/modules/64/nodes/350) é uma
+variação desse guia com desafios.
+
+[JavaScript Garden](http://bonsaiden.github.io/JavaScript-Garden/) é um guia
+profundo de todas as partes do JavaScript.
+
+[JavaScript: The Definitive Guide](http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0596805527/) é o guia clássico
+/ livro de referência.
+
+Parte desse artigo foi adaptado do tutorial de Python do Louie Dinh que está
+nesse site e do [Tutorial de JS](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/A_re-introduction_to_JavaScript)
+da Mozilla Developer Network.
diff --git a/pt-br/swift-pt.html.markdown b/pt-br/swift-pt.html.markdown
index 72a57e4a..e840b8cf 100644
--- a/pt-br/swift-pt.html.markdown
+++ b/pt-br/swift-pt.html.markdown
@@ -221,7 +221,7 @@ println("Gas price: \(price)")
// Número variável de argumentos
func setup(numbers: Int...) {
- // its an array
+ // é um array
let number = numbers[0]
let argCount = numbers.count
}
diff --git a/python.html.markdown b/python.html.markdown
index 352f7349..5572e38e 100644
--- a/python.html.markdown
+++ b/python.html.markdown
@@ -198,7 +198,7 @@ li[::-1] # => [3, 4, 2, 1]
# Remove arbitrary elements from a list with "del"
del li[2] # li is now [1, 2, 3]
-r
+
# You can add lists
li + other_li # => [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
# Note: values for li and for other_li are not modified.
diff --git a/python3.html.markdown b/python3.html.markdown
index 7b6edae7..971ca0a4 100644
--- a/python3.html.markdown
+++ b/python3.html.markdown
@@ -387,6 +387,18 @@ for i in range(4, 8):
print(i)
"""
+"range(lower, upper, step)" returns an iterable of numbers
+from the lower number to the upper number, while incrementing
+by step. If step is not indicated, the default value is 1.
+prints:
+ 4
+ 6
+ 8
+"""
+for i in range(4, 8, 2):
+ print(i)
+"""
+
While loops go until a condition is no longer met.
prints:
0
diff --git a/ru-ru/javascript-ru.html.markdown b/ru-ru/javascript-ru.html.markdown
index 79844565..8655ae4a 100644
--- a/ru-ru/javascript-ru.html.markdown
+++ b/ru-ru/javascript-ru.html.markdown
@@ -470,9 +470,6 @@ myNumber === myNumberObj; // = false
if (0) {
// Этот код не выполнится, потому что 0 - это ложь.
}
-if (Number(0)) {
- // Этот код *выполнится*, потому что Number(0) истинно.
-}
// Впрочем, объекты-обёртки и встроенные типы имеют общие прототипы,
// поэтому вы можете расширить функционал строк, например:
diff --git a/ru-ru/ruby-ru.html.markdown b/ru-ru/ruby-ru.html.markdown
index 318e0e09..69b5fb46 100644
--- a/ru-ru/ruby-ru.html.markdown
+++ b/ru-ru/ruby-ru.html.markdown
@@ -158,6 +158,7 @@ array << 6 #=> [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
hash = {'color' => 'green', 'number' => 5}
hash.keys #=> ['color', 'number']
+hash.values #=> ['green', 5]
# Значение в хэше легко может быть найдено по ключу:
hash['color'] #=> 'green'
diff --git a/ruby-ecosystem.html.markdown b/ruby-ecosystem.html.markdown
index d8a02d36..1fbcc752 100644
--- a/ruby-ecosystem.html.markdown
+++ b/ruby-ecosystem.html.markdown
@@ -42,7 +42,7 @@ The three major version of Ruby in use are:
* 2.0.0 - Released in February 2013. Most major libraries and frameworks support
2.0.0.
* 1.9.3 - Released in October 2011. This is the version most rubyists use
- currently.
+ currently. Also [retired](https://www.ruby-lang.org/en/news/2015/02/23/support-for-ruby-1-9-3-has-ended/)
* 1.8.7 - Ruby 1.8.7 has been
[retired](http://www.ruby-lang.org/en/news/2013/06/30/we-retire-1-8-7/).
diff --git a/ruby.html.markdown b/ruby.html.markdown
index 7bd28d86..8f23b2e6 100644
--- a/ruby.html.markdown
+++ b/ruby.html.markdown
@@ -168,6 +168,10 @@ array[-1] #=> 5
# With a start index and length
array[2, 3] #=> [3, 4, 5]
+# Reverse an Array
+a=[1,2,3]
+a.reverse! #=> [3,2,1]
+
# Or with a range
array[1..3] #=> [2, 3, 4]
diff --git a/rust.html.markdown b/rust.html.markdown
index 4fbd6144..3157fcf4 100644
--- a/rust.html.markdown
+++ b/rust.html.markdown
@@ -14,7 +14,7 @@ it possible to use Rust libraries as a "drop-in replacement" for C.
Rust’s first release, 0.1, occurred in January 2012, and for 3 years development
moved so quickly that until recently the use of stable releases was discouraged
-and instead the general advise was to use nightly builds.
+and instead the general advice was to use nightly builds.
On May 15th 2015, Rust 1.0 was released with a complete guarantee of backward
compatibility. Improvements to compile times and other aspects of the compiler are
diff --git a/smalltalk.html.markdown b/smalltalk.html.markdown
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..a434a1ad
--- /dev/null
+++ b/smalltalk.html.markdown
@@ -0,0 +1,955 @@
+---
+language: smalltalk
+contributors:
+ - ["Jigyasa Grover", "https://github.com/jig08"]
+---
+
+- Smalltalk is an object-oriented, dynamically typed, reflective programming language.
+- Smalltalk was created as the language to underpin the "new world" of computing exemplified by "human–computer symbiosis."
+- It was designed and created in part for educational use, more so for constructionist learning, at the Learning Research Group (LRG) of Xerox PARC by Alan Kay, Dan Ingalls, Adele Goldberg, Ted Kaehler, Scott Wallace, and others during the 1970s.
+
+Feedback highly appreciated! Reach me at [@jigyasa_grover](https://twitter.com/jigyasa_grover) or send me an e-mail at `grover.jigyasa1@gmail.com`.
+
+
+##Allowable characters:
+- a-z
+- A-Z
+- 0-9
+- .+/\*~<>@%|&?
+- blank, tab, cr, ff, lf
+
+##Variables:
+- variables must be declared before use
+- shared vars must begin with uppercase
+- local vars must begin with lowercase
+- reserved names: `nil`, `true`, `false`, `self`, `super`, and `Smalltalk`
+
+##Variable scope:
+- Global: defined in Dictionary Smalltalk and accessible by all objects in system - Special: (reserved) `Smalltalk`, `super`, `self`, `true`, `false`, & `nil`
+- Method Temporary: local to a method
+- Block Temporary: local to a block
+- Pool: variables in a Dictionary object
+- Method Parameters: automatic local vars created as a result of message call with params
+- Block Parameters: automatic local vars created as a result of value: message call
+- Class: shared with all instances of one class & its subclasses
+- Class Instance: unique to each instance of a class
+- Instance Variables: unique to each instance
+
+`"Comments are enclosed in quotes"`
+
+`"Period (.) is the statement seperator"`
+
+## Transcript:
+```
+Transcript clear. "clear to transcript window"
+Transcript show: 'Hello World'. "output string in transcript window"
+Transcript nextPutAll: 'Hello World'. "output string in transcript window"
+Transcript nextPut: $A. "output character in transcript window"
+Transcript space. "output space character in transcript window"
+Transcript tab. "output tab character in transcript window"
+Transcript cr. "carriage return / linefeed"
+'Hello' printOn: Transcript. "append print string into the window"
+'Hello' storeOn: Transcript. "append store string into the window"
+Transcript endEntry. "flush the output buffer"
+```
+
+##Assignment:
+```
+| x y |
+x _ 4. "assignment (Squeak) <-"
+x := 5. "assignment"
+x := y := z := 6. "compound assignment"
+x := (y := 6) + 1.
+x := Object new. "bind to allocated instance of a class"
+x := 123 class. "discover the object class"
+x := Integer superclass. "discover the superclass of a class"
+x := Object allInstances. "get an array of all instances of a class"
+x := Integer allSuperclasses. "get all superclasses of a class"
+x := 1.2 hash. "hash value for object"
+y := x copy. "copy object"
+y := x shallowCopy. "copy object (not overridden)"
+y := x deepCopy. "copy object and instance vars"
+y := x veryDeepCopy. "complete tree copy using a dictionary"
+```
+
+##Constants:
+```
+| b |
+b := true. "true constant"
+b := false. "false constant"
+x := nil. "nil object constant"
+x := 1. "integer constants"
+x := 3.14. "float constants"
+x := 2e-2. "fractional constants"
+x := 16r0F. "hex constant".
+x := -1. "negative constants"
+x := 'Hello'. "string constant"
+x := 'I''m here'. "single quote escape"
+x := $A. "character constant"
+x := $ . "character constant (space)"
+x := #aSymbol. "symbol constants"
+x := #(3 2 1). "array constants"
+x := #('abc' 2 $a). "mixing of types allowed"
+
+```
+
+## Booleans:
+```
+| b x y |
+x := 1. y := 2.
+b := (x = y). "equals"
+b := (x ~= y). "not equals"
+b := (x == y). "identical"
+b := (x ~~ y). "not identical"
+b := (x > y). "greater than"
+b := (x < y). "less than"
+b := (x >= y). "greater than or equal"
+b := (x <= y). "less than or equal"
+b := b not. "boolean not"
+b := (x < 5) & (y > 1). "boolean and"
+b := (x < 5) | (y > 1). "boolean or"
+b := (x < 5) and: [y > 1]. "boolean and (short-circuit)"
+b := (x < 5) or: [y > 1]. "boolean or (short-circuit)"
+b := (x < 5) eqv: (y > 1). "test if both true or both false"
+b := (x < 5) xor: (y > 1). "test if one true and other false"
+b := 5 between: 3 and: 12. "between (inclusive)"
+b := 123 isKindOf: Number. "test if object is class or subclass of"
+b := 123 isMemberOf: SmallInteger. "test if object is type of class"
+b := 123 respondsTo: sqrt. "test if object responds to message"
+b := x isNil. "test if object is nil"
+b := x isZero. "test if number is zero"
+b := x positive. "test if number is positive"
+b := x strictlyPositive. "test if number is greater than zero"
+b := x negative. "test if number is negative"
+b := x even. "test if number is even"
+b := x odd. "test if number is odd"
+b := x isLiteral. "test if literal constant"
+b := x isInteger. "test if object is integer"
+b := x isFloat. "test if object is float"
+b := x isNumber. "test if object is number"
+b := $A isUppercase. "test if upper case character"
+b := $A isLowercase. "test if lower case character"
+
+```
+
+## Arithmetic expressions:
+```
+| x |
+x := 6 + 3. "addition"
+x := 6 - 3. "subtraction"
+x := 6 * 3. "multiplication"
+x := 1 + 2 * 3. "evaluation always left to right (1 + 2) * 3"
+x := 5 / 3. "division with fractional result"
+x := 5.0 / 3.0. "division with float result"
+x := 5.0 // 3.0. "integer divide"
+x := 5.0 \\ 3.0. "integer remainder"
+x := -5. "unary minus"
+x := 5 sign. "numeric sign (1, -1 or 0)"
+x := 5 negated. "negate receiver"
+x := 1.2 integerPart. "integer part of number (1.0)"
+x := 1.2 fractionPart. "fractional part of number (0.2)"
+x := 5 reciprocal. "reciprocal function"
+x := 6 * 3.1. "auto convert to float"
+x := 5 squared. "square function"
+x := 25 sqrt. "square root"
+x := 5 raisedTo: 2. "power function"
+x := 5 raisedToInteger: 2. "power function with integer"
+x := 5 exp. "exponential"
+x := -5 abs. "absolute value"
+x := 3.99 rounded. "round"
+x := 3.99 truncated. "truncate"
+x := 3.99 roundTo: 1. "round to specified decimal places"
+x := 3.99 truncateTo: 1. "truncate to specified decimal places"
+x := 3.99 floor. "truncate"
+x := 3.99 ceiling. "round up"
+x := 5 factorial. "factorial"
+x := -5 quo: 3. "integer divide rounded toward zero"
+x := -5 rem: 3. "integer remainder rounded toward zero"
+x := 28 gcd: 12. "greatest common denominator"
+x := 28 lcm: 12. "least common multiple"
+x := 100 ln. "natural logarithm"
+x := 100 log. "base 10 logarithm"
+x := 100 log: 10. "logarithm with specified base"
+x := 100 floorLog: 10. "floor of the log"
+x := 180 degreesToRadians. "convert degrees to radians"
+x := 3.14 radiansToDegrees. "convert radians to degrees"
+x := 0.7 sin. "sine"
+x := 0.7 cos. "cosine"
+x := 0.7 tan. "tangent"
+x := 0.7 arcSin. "arcsine"
+x := 0.7 arcCos. "arccosine"
+x := 0.7 arcTan. "arctangent"
+x := 10 max: 20. "get maximum of two numbers"
+x := 10 min: 20. "get minimum of two numbers"
+x := Float pi. "pi"
+x := Float e. "exp constant"
+x := Float infinity. "infinity"
+x := Float nan. "not-a-number"
+x := Random new next; yourself. x next. "random number stream (0.0 to 1.0)
+x := 100 atRandom. "quick random number"
+
+```
+
+##Bitwise Manipulation:
+```
+| b x |
+x := 16rFF bitAnd: 16r0F. "and bits"
+x := 16rF0 bitOr: 16r0F. "or bits"
+x := 16rFF bitXor: 16r0F. "xor bits"
+x := 16rFF bitInvert. "invert bits"
+x := 16r0F bitShift: 4. "left shift"
+x := 16rF0 bitShift: -4. "right shift"
+"x := 16r80 bitAt: 7." "bit at position (0|1) [!Squeak]"
+x := 16r80 highbit. "position of highest bit set"
+b := 16rFF allMask: 16r0F. "test if all bits set in mask set in receiver"
+b := 16rFF anyMask: 16r0F. "test if any bits set in mask set in receiver"
+b := 16rFF noMask: 16r0F. "test if all bits set in mask clear in receiver"
+
+```
+
+## Conversion:
+```
+| x |
+x := 3.99 asInteger. "convert number to integer (truncates in Squeak)"
+x := 3.99 asFraction. "convert number to fraction"
+x := 3 asFloat. "convert number to float"
+x := 65 asCharacter. "convert integer to character"
+x := $A asciiValue. "convert character to integer"
+x := 3.99 printString. "convert object to string via printOn:"
+x := 3.99 storeString. "convert object to string via storeOn:"
+x := 15 radix: 16. "convert to string in given base"
+x := 15 printStringBase: 16.
+x := 15 storeStringBase: 16.
+
+```
+
+## Blocks:
+- blocks are objects and may be assigned to a variable
+- value is last expression evaluated unless explicit return
+- blocks may be nested
+- specification [ arguments | | localvars | expressions ]
+- Squeak does not currently support localvars in blocks
+- max of three arguments allowed
+- `^`expression terminates block & method (exits all nested blocks)
+- blocks intended for long term storage should not contain `^`
+
+```
+| x y z |
+x := [ y := 1. z := 2. ]. x value. "simple block usage"
+x := [ :argOne :argTwo | argOne, ' and ' , argTwo.]. "set up block with argument passing"
+Transcript show: (x value: 'First' value: 'Second'); cr. "use block with argument passing"
+"x := [ | z | z := 1.]. *** localvars not available in squeak blocks"
+```
+
+## Method calls:
+- unary methods are messages with no arguments
+- binary methods
+- keyword methods are messages with selectors including colons standard categories/protocols: - initialize-release (methods called for new instance)
+- accessing (get/set methods)
+- testing (boolean tests - is)
+- comparing (boolean tests with parameter
+- displaying (gui related methods)
+- printing (methods for printing)
+- updating (receive notification of changes)
+- private (methods private to class)
+- instance-creation (class methods for creating instance)
+```
+| x |
+x := 2 sqrt. "unary message"
+x := 2 raisedTo: 10. "keyword message"
+x := 194 * 9. "binary message"
+Transcript show: (194 * 9) printString; cr. "combination (chaining)"
+x := 2 perform: #sqrt. "indirect method invocation"
+Transcript "Cascading - send multiple messages to receiver"
+ show: 'hello ';
+ show: 'world';
+ cr.
+x := 3 + 2; * 100. "result=300. Sends message to same receiver (3)"
+```
+
+##Conditional Statements:
+```
+| x |
+x > 10 ifTrue: [Transcript show: 'ifTrue'; cr]. "if then"
+x > 10 ifFalse: [Transcript show: 'ifFalse'; cr]. "if else"
+x > 10 "if then else"
+ ifTrue: [Transcript show: 'ifTrue'; cr]
+ ifFalse: [Transcript show: 'ifFalse'; cr].
+x > 10 "if else then"
+ ifFalse: [Transcript show: 'ifFalse'; cr]
+ ifTrue: [Transcript show: 'ifTrue'; cr].
+Transcript
+ show:
+ (x > 10
+ ifTrue: ['ifTrue']
+ ifFalse: ['ifFalse']);
+ cr.
+Transcript "nested if then else"
+ show:
+ (x > 10
+ ifTrue: [x > 5
+ ifTrue: ['A']
+ ifFalse: ['B']]
+ ifFalse: ['C']);
+ cr.
+switch := Dictionary new. "switch functionality"
+switch at: $A put: [Transcript show: 'Case A'; cr].
+switch at: $B put: [Transcript show: 'Case B'; cr].
+switch at: $C put: [Transcript show: 'Case C'; cr].
+result := (switch at: $B) value.
+```
+
+## Iteration statements:
+```
+| x y |
+x := 4. y := 1.
+[x > 0] whileTrue: [x := x - 1. y := y * 2]. "while true loop"
+[x >= 4] whileFalse: [x := x + 1. y := y * 2]. "while false loop"
+x timesRepeat: [y := y * 2]. "times repear loop (i := 1 to x)"
+1 to: x do: [:a | y := y * 2]. "for loop"
+1 to: x by: 2 do: [:a | y := y / 2]. "for loop with specified increment"
+#(5 4 3) do: [:a | x := x + a]. "iterate over array elements"
+```
+
+## Character:
+```
+| x y |
+x := $A. "character assignment"
+y := x isLowercase. "test if lower case"
+y := x isUppercase. "test if upper case"
+y := x isLetter. "test if letter"
+y := x isDigit. "test if digit"
+y := x isAlphaNumeric. "test if alphanumeric"
+y := x isSeparator. "test if seperator char"
+y := x isVowel. "test if vowel"
+y := x digitValue. "convert to numeric digit value"
+y := x asLowercase. "convert to lower case"
+y := x asUppercase. "convert to upper case"
+y := x asciiValue. "convert to numeric ascii value"
+y := x asString. "convert to string"
+b := $A <= $B. "comparison"
+y := $A max: $B.
+
+```
+
+## Symbol:
+```
+| b x y |
+x := #Hello. "symbol assignment"
+y := 'String', 'Concatenation'. "symbol concatenation (result is string)"
+b := x isEmpty. "test if symbol is empty"
+y := x size. "string size"
+y := x at: 2. "char at location"
+y := x copyFrom: 2 to: 4. "substring"
+y := x indexOf: $e ifAbsent: [0]. "first position of character within string"
+x do: [:a | Transcript show: a printString; cr]. "iterate over the string"
+b := x conform: [:a | (a >= $a) & (a <= $z)]. "test if all elements meet condition"
+y := x select: [:a | a > $a]. "return all elements that meet condition"
+y := x asString. "convert symbol to string"
+y := x asText. "convert symbol to text"
+y := x asArray. "convert symbol to array"
+y := x asOrderedCollection. "convert symbol to ordered collection"
+y := x asSortedCollection. "convert symbol to sorted collection"
+y := x asBag. "convert symbol to bag collection"
+y := x asSet. "convert symbol to set collection"
+```
+
+## String:
+```
+| b x y |
+x := 'This is a string'. "string assignment"
+x := 'String', 'Concatenation'. "string concatenation"
+b := x isEmpty. "test if string is empty"
+y := x size. "string size"
+y := x at: 2. "char at location"
+y := x copyFrom: 2 to: 4. "substring"
+y := x indexOf: $a ifAbsent: [0]. "first position of character within string"
+x := String new: 4. "allocate string object"
+x "set string elements"
+ at: 1 put: $a;
+ at: 2 put: $b;
+ at: 3 put: $c;
+ at: 4 put: $e.
+x := String with: $a with: $b with: $c with: $d. "set up to 4 elements at a time"
+x do: [:a | Transcript show: a printString; cr]. "iterate over the string"
+b := x conform: [:a | (a >= $a) & (a <= $z)]. "test if all elements meet condition"
+y := x select: [:a | a > $a]. "return all elements that meet condition"
+y := x asSymbol. "convert string to symbol"
+y := x asArray. "convert string to array"
+x := 'ABCD' asByteArray. "convert string to byte array"
+y := x asOrderedCollection. "convert string to ordered collection"
+y := x asSortedCollection. "convert string to sorted collection"
+y := x asBag. "convert string to bag collection"
+y := x asSet. "convert string to set collection"
+y := x shuffled. "randomly shuffle string"
+```
+
+## Array: Fixed length collection
+- ByteArray: Array limited to byte elements (0-255)
+- WordArray: Array limited to word elements (0-2^32)
+
+```
+| b x y sum max |
+x := #(4 3 2 1). "constant array"
+x := Array with: 5 with: 4 with: 3 with: 2. "create array with up to 4 elements"
+x := Array new: 4. "allocate an array with specified size"
+x "set array elements"
+ at: 1 put: 5;
+ at: 2 put: 4;
+ at: 3 put: 3;
+ at: 4 put: 2.
+b := x isEmpty. "test if array is empty"
+y := x size. "array size"
+y := x at: 4. "get array element at index"
+b := x includes: 3. "test if element is in array"
+y := x copyFrom: 2 to: 4. "subarray"
+y := x indexOf: 3 ifAbsent: [0]. "first position of element within array"
+y := x occurrencesOf: 3. "number of times object in collection"
+x do: [:a | Transcript show: a printString; cr]. "iterate over the array"
+b := x conform: [:a | (a >= 1) & (a <= 4)]. "test if all elements meet condition"
+y := x select: [:a | a > 2]. "return collection of elements that pass test"
+y := x reject: [:a | a < 2]. "return collection of elements that fail test"
+y := x collect: [:a | a + a]. "transform each element for new collection"
+y := x detect: [:a | a > 3] ifNone: []. "find position of first element that passes test"
+sum := 0. x do: [:a | sum := sum + a]. sum. "sum array elements"
+sum := 0. 1 to: (x size) do: [:a | sum := sum + (x at: a)]. "sum array elements"
+sum := x inject: 0 into: [:a :c | a + c]. "sum array elements"
+max := x inject: 0 into: [:a :c | (a > c) "find max element in array"
+ ifTrue: [a]
+ ifFalse: [c]].
+y := x shuffled. "randomly shuffle collection"
+y := x asArray. "convert to array"
+"y := x asByteArray." "note: this instruction not available on Squeak"
+y := x asWordArray. "convert to word array"
+y := x asOrderedCollection. "convert to ordered collection"
+y := x asSortedCollection. "convert to sorted collection"
+y := x asBag. "convert to bag collection"
+y := x asSet. "convert to set collection"
+```
+
+##OrderedCollection: acts like an expandable array
+```
+| b x y sum max |
+x := OrderedCollection with: 4 with: 3 with: 2 with: 1. "create collection with up to 4 elements"
+x := OrderedCollection new. "allocate collection"
+x add: 3; add: 2; add: 1; add: 4; yourself. "add element to collection"
+y := x addFirst: 5. "add element at beginning of collection"
+y := x removeFirst. "remove first element in collection"
+y := x addLast: 6. "add element at end of collection"
+y := x removeLast. "remove last element in collection"
+y := x addAll: #(7 8 9). "add multiple elements to collection"
+y := x removeAll: #(7 8 9). "remove multiple elements from collection"
+x at: 2 put: 3. "set element at index"
+y := x remove: 5 ifAbsent: []. "remove element from collection"
+b := x isEmpty. "test if empty"
+y := x size. "number of elements"
+y := x at: 2. "retrieve element at index"
+y := x first. "retrieve first element in collection"
+y := x last. "retrieve last element in collection"
+b := x includes: 5. "test if element is in collection"
+y := x copyFrom: 2 to: 3. "subcollection"
+y := x indexOf: 3 ifAbsent: [0]. "first position of element within collection"
+y := x occurrencesOf: 3. "number of times object in collection"
+x do: [:a | Transcript show: a printString; cr]. "iterate over the collection"
+b := x conform: [:a | (a >= 1) & (a <= 4)]. "test if all elements meet condition"
+y := x select: [:a | a > 2]. "return collection of elements that pass test"
+y := x reject: [:a | a < 2]. "return collection of elements that fail test"
+y := x collect: [:a | a + a]. "transform each element for new collection"
+y := x detect: [:a | a > 3] ifNone: []. "find position of first element that passes test"
+sum := 0. x do: [:a | sum := sum + a]. sum. "sum elements"
+sum := 0. 1 to: (x size) do: [:a | sum := sum + (x at: a)]. "sum elements"
+sum := x inject: 0 into: [:a :c | a + c]. "sum elements"
+max := x inject: 0 into: [:a :c | (a > c) "find max element in collection"
+ ifTrue: [a]
+ ifFalse: [c]].
+y := x shuffled. "randomly shuffle collection"
+y := x asArray. "convert to array"
+y := x asOrderedCollection. "convert to ordered collection"
+y := x asSortedCollection. "convert to sorted collection"
+y := x asBag. "convert to bag collection"
+y := x asSet. "convert to set collection"
+```
+
+## SortedCollection: like OrderedCollection except order of elements determined by sorting criteria
+```
+| b x y sum max |
+x := SortedCollection with: 4 with: 3 with: 2 with: 1. "create collection with up to 4 elements"
+x := SortedCollection new. "allocate collection"
+x := SortedCollection sortBlock: [:a :c | a > c]. "set sort criteria"
+x add: 3; add: 2; add: 1; add: 4; yourself. "add element to collection"
+y := x addFirst: 5. "add element at beginning of collection"
+y := x removeFirst. "remove first element in collection"
+y := x addLast: 6. "add element at end of collection"
+y := x removeLast. "remove last element in collection"
+y := x addAll: #(7 8 9). "add multiple elements to collection"
+y := x removeAll: #(7 8 9). "remove multiple elements from collection"
+y := x remove: 5 ifAbsent: []. "remove element from collection"
+b := x isEmpty. "test if empty"
+y := x size. "number of elements"
+y := x at: 2. "retrieve element at index"
+y := x first. "retrieve first element in collection"
+y := x last. "retrieve last element in collection"
+b := x includes: 4. "test if element is in collection"
+y := x copyFrom: 2 to: 3. "subcollection"
+y := x indexOf: 3 ifAbsent: [0]. "first position of element within collection"
+y := x occurrencesOf: 3. "number of times object in collection"
+x do: [:a | Transcript show: a printString; cr]. "iterate over the collection"
+b := x conform: [:a | (a >= 1) & (a <= 4)]. "test if all elements meet condition"
+y := x select: [:a | a > 2]. "return collection of elements that pass test"
+y := x reject: [:a | a < 2]. "return collection of elements that fail test"
+y := x collect: [:a | a + a]. "transform each element for new collection"
+y := x detect: [:a | a > 3] ifNone: []. "find position of first element that passes test"
+sum := 0. x do: [:a | sum := sum + a]. sum. "sum elements"
+sum := 0. 1 to: (x size) do: [:a | sum := sum + (x at: a)]. "sum elements"
+sum := x inject: 0 into: [:a :c | a + c]. "sum elements"
+max := x inject: 0 into: [:a :c | (a > c) "find max element in collection"
+ ifTrue: [a]
+ ifFalse: [c]].
+y := x asArray. "convert to array"
+y := x asOrderedCollection. "convert to ordered collection"
+y := x asSortedCollection. "convert to sorted collection"
+y := x asBag. "convert to bag collection"
+y := x asSet. "convert to set collection"
+```
+
+## Bag: like OrderedCollection except elements are in no particular order
+```
+| b x y sum max |
+x := Bag with: 4 with: 3 with: 2 with: 1. "create collection with up to 4 elements"
+x := Bag new. "allocate collection"
+x add: 4; add: 3; add: 1; add: 2; yourself. "add element to collection"
+x add: 3 withOccurrences: 2. "add multiple copies to collection"
+y := x addAll: #(7 8 9). "add multiple elements to collection"
+y := x removeAll: #(7 8 9). "remove multiple elements from collection"
+y := x remove: 4 ifAbsent: []. "remove element from collection"
+b := x isEmpty. "test if empty"
+y := x size. "number of elements"
+b := x includes: 3. "test if element is in collection"
+y := x occurrencesOf: 3. "number of times object in collection"
+x do: [:a | Transcript show: a printString; cr]. "iterate over the collection"
+b := x conform: [:a | (a >= 1) & (a <= 4)]. "test if all elements meet condition"
+y := x select: [:a | a > 2]. "return collection of elements that pass test"
+y := x reject: [:a | a < 2]. "return collection of elements that fail test"
+y := x collect: [:a | a + a]. "transform each element for new collection"
+y := x detect: [:a | a > 3] ifNone: []. "find position of first element that passes test"
+sum := 0. x do: [:a | sum := sum + a]. sum. "sum elements"
+sum := x inject: 0 into: [:a :c | a + c]. "sum elements"
+max := x inject: 0 into: [:a :c | (a > c) "find max element in collection"
+ ifTrue: [a]
+ ifFalse: [c]].
+y := x asOrderedCollection. "convert to ordered collection"
+y := x asSortedCollection. "convert to sorted collection"
+y := x asBag. "convert to bag collection"
+y := x asSet. "convert to set collection"
+```
+
+## Set: like Bag except duplicates not allowed
+## IdentitySet: uses identity test (== rather than =)
+```
+| b x y sum max |
+x := Set with: 4 with: 3 with: 2 with: 1. "create collection with up to 4 elements"
+x := Set new. "allocate collection"
+x add: 4; add: 3; add: 1; add: 2; yourself. "add element to collection"
+y := x addAll: #(7 8 9). "add multiple elements to collection"
+y := x removeAll: #(7 8 9). "remove multiple elements from collection"
+y := x remove: 4 ifAbsent: []. "remove element from collection"
+b := x isEmpty. "test if empty"
+y := x size. "number of elements"
+x includes: 4. "test if element is in collection"
+x do: [:a | Transcript show: a printString; cr]. "iterate over the collection"
+b := x conform: [:a | (a >= 1) & (a <= 4)]. "test if all elements meet condition"
+y := x select: [:a | a > 2]. "return collection of elements that pass test"
+y := x reject: [:a | a < 2]. "return collection of elements that fail test"
+y := x collect: [:a | a + a]. "transform each element for new collection"
+y := x detect: [:a | a > 3] ifNone: []. "find position of first element that passes test"
+sum := 0. x do: [:a | sum := sum + a]. sum. "sum elements"
+sum := x inject: 0 into: [:a :c | a + c]. "sum elements"
+max := x inject: 0 into: [:a :c | (a > c) "find max element in collection"
+ ifTrue: [a]
+ ifFalse: [c]].
+y := x asArray. "convert to array"
+y := x asOrderedCollection. "convert to ordered collection"
+y := x asSortedCollection. "convert to sorted collection"
+y := x asBag. "convert to bag collection"
+y := x asSet. "convert to set collection"
+```
+
+## Interval:
+```
+| b x y sum max |
+x := Interval from: 5 to: 10. "create interval object"
+x := 5 to: 10.
+x := Interval from: 5 to: 10 by: 2. "create interval object with specified increment"
+x := 5 to: 10 by: 2.
+b := x isEmpty. "test if empty"
+y := x size. "number of elements"
+x includes: 9. "test if element is in collection"
+x do: [:k | Transcript show: k printString; cr]. "iterate over interval"
+b := x conform: [:a | (a >= 1) & (a <= 4)]. "test if all elements meet condition"
+y := x select: [:a | a > 7]. "return collection of elements that pass test"
+y := x reject: [:a | a < 2]. "return collection of elements that fail test"
+y := x collect: [:a | a + a]. "transform each element for new collection"
+y := x detect: [:a | a > 3] ifNone: []. "find position of first element that passes test"
+sum := 0. x do: [:a | sum := sum + a]. sum. "sum elements"
+sum := 0. 1 to: (x size) do: [:a | sum := sum + (x at: a)]. "sum elements"
+sum := x inject: 0 into: [:a :c | a + c]. "sum elements"
+max := x inject: 0 into: [:a :c | (a > c) "find max element in collection"
+ ifTrue: [a]
+ ifFalse: [c]].
+y := x asArray. "convert to array"
+y := x asOrderedCollection. "convert to ordered collection"
+y := x asSortedCollection. "convert to sorted collection"
+y := x asBag. "convert to bag collection"
+y := x asSet. "convert to set collection"
+```
+
+##Associations:
+```
+| x y |
+x := #myVar->'hello'.
+y := x key.
+y := x value.
+```
+
+## Dictionary:
+## IdentityDictionary: uses identity test (== rather than =)
+```
+| b x y |
+x := Dictionary new. "allocate collection"
+x add: #a->4; add: #b->3; add: #c->1; add: #d->2; yourself. "add element to collection"
+x at: #e put: 3. "set element at index"
+b := x isEmpty. "test if empty"
+y := x size. "number of elements"
+y := x at: #a ifAbsent: []. "retrieve element at index"
+y := x keyAtValue: 3 ifAbsent: []. "retrieve key for given value with error block"
+y := x removeKey: #e ifAbsent: []. "remove element from collection"
+b := x includes: 3. "test if element is in values collection"
+b := x includesKey: #a. "test if element is in keys collection"
+y := x occurrencesOf: 3. "number of times object in collection"
+y := x keys. "set of keys"
+y := x values. "bag of values"
+x do: [:a | Transcript show: a printString; cr]. "iterate over the values collection"
+x keysDo: [:a | Transcript show: a printString; cr]. "iterate over the keys collection"
+x associationsDo: [:a | Transcript show: a printString; cr]."iterate over the associations"
+x keysAndValuesDo: [:aKey :aValue | Transcript "iterate over keys and values"
+ show: aKey printString; space;
+ show: aValue printString; cr].
+b := x conform: [:a | (a >= 1) & (a <= 4)]. "test if all elements meet condition"
+y := x select: [:a | a > 2]. "return collection of elements that pass test"
+y := x reject: [:a | a < 2]. "return collection of elements that fail test"
+y := x collect: [:a | a + a]. "transform each element for new collection"
+y := x detect: [:a | a > 3] ifNone: []. "find position of first element that passes test"
+sum := 0. x do: [:a | sum := sum + a]. sum. "sum elements"
+sum := x inject: 0 into: [:a :c | a + c]. "sum elements"
+max := x inject: 0 into: [:a :c | (a > c) "find max element in collection"
+ ifTrue: [a]
+ ifFalse: [c]].
+y := x asArray. "convert to array"
+y := x asOrderedCollection. "convert to ordered collection"
+y := x asSortedCollection. "convert to sorted collection"
+y := x asBag. "convert to bag collection"
+y := x asSet. "convert to set collection"
+
+Smalltalk at: #CMRGlobal put: 'CMR entry'. "put global in Smalltalk Dictionary"
+x := Smalltalk at: #CMRGlobal. "read global from Smalltalk Dictionary"
+Transcript show: (CMRGlobal printString). "entries are directly accessible by name"
+Smalltalk keys do: [ :k | "print out all classes"
+ ((Smalltalk at: k) isKindOf: Class)
+ ifFalse: [Transcript show: k printString; cr]].
+Smalltalk at: #CMRDictionary put: (Dictionary new). "set up user defined dictionary"
+CMRDictionary at: #MyVar1 put: 'hello1'. "put entry in dictionary"
+CMRDictionary add: #MyVar2->'hello2'. "add entry to dictionary use key->value combo"
+CMRDictionary size. "dictionary size"
+CMRDictionary keys do: [ :k | "print out keys in dictionary"
+ Transcript show: k printString; cr].
+CMRDictionary values do: [ :k | "print out values in dictionary"
+ Transcript show: k printString; cr].
+CMRDictionary keysAndValuesDo: [:aKey :aValue | "print out keys and values"
+ Transcript
+ show: aKey printString;
+ space;
+ show: aValue printString;
+ cr].
+CMRDictionary associationsDo: [:aKeyValue | "another iterator for printing key values"
+ Transcript show: aKeyValue printString; cr].
+Smalltalk removeKey: #CMRGlobal ifAbsent: []. "remove entry from Smalltalk dictionary"
+Smalltalk removeKey: #CMRDictionary ifAbsent: []. "remove user dictionary from Smalltalk dictionary"
+```
+
+## Internal Stream:
+```
+| b x ios |
+ios := ReadStream on: 'Hello read stream'.
+ios := ReadStream on: 'Hello read stream' from: 1 to: 5.
+[(x := ios nextLine) notNil]
+ whileTrue: [Transcript show: x; cr].
+ios position: 3.
+ios position.
+x := ios next.
+x := ios peek.
+x := ios contents.
+b := ios atEnd.
+
+ios := ReadWriteStream on: 'Hello read stream'.
+ios := ReadWriteStream on: 'Hello read stream' from: 1 to: 5.
+ios := ReadWriteStream with: 'Hello read stream'.
+ios := ReadWriteStream with: 'Hello read stream' from: 1 to: 10.
+ios position: 0.
+[(x := ios nextLine) notNil]
+ whileTrue: [Transcript show: x; cr].
+ios position: 6.
+ios position.
+ios nextPutAll: 'Chris'.
+x := ios next.
+x := ios peek.
+x := ios contents.
+b := ios atEnd.
+```
+
+## FileStream:
+```
+| b x ios |
+ios := FileStream newFileNamed: 'ios.txt'.
+ios nextPut: $H; cr.
+ios nextPutAll: 'Hello File'; cr.
+'Hello File' printOn: ios.
+'Hello File' storeOn: ios.
+ios close.
+
+ios := FileStream oldFileNamed: 'ios.txt'.
+[(x := ios nextLine) notNil]
+ whileTrue: [Transcript show: x; cr].
+ios position: 3.
+x := ios position.
+x := ios next.
+x := ios peek.
+b := ios atEnd.
+ios close.
+```
+
+## Date:
+```
+| x y |
+x := Date today. "create date for today"
+x := Date dateAndTimeNow. "create date from current time/date"
+x := Date readFromString: '01/02/1999'. "create date from formatted string"
+x := Date newDay: 12 month: #July year: 1999 "create date from parts"
+x := Date fromDays: 36000. "create date from elapsed days since 1/1/1901"
+y := Date dayOfWeek: #Monday. "day of week as int (1-7)"
+y := Date indexOfMonth: #January. "month of year as int (1-12)"
+y := Date daysInMonth: 2 forYear: 1996. "day of month as int (1-31)"
+y := Date daysInYear: 1996. "days in year (365|366)"
+y := Date nameOfDay: 1 "weekday name (#Monday,...)"
+y := Date nameOfMonth: 1. "month name (#January,...)"
+y := Date leapYear: 1996. "1 if leap year; 0 if not leap year"
+y := x weekday. "day of week (#Monday,...)"
+y := x previous: #Monday. "date for previous day of week"
+y := x dayOfMonth. "day of month (1-31)"
+y := x day. "day of year (1-366)"
+y := x firstDayOfMonth. "day of year for first day of month"
+y := x monthName. "month of year (#January,...)"
+y := x monthIndex. "month of year (1-12)"
+y := x daysInMonth. "days in month (1-31)"
+y := x year. "year (19xx)"
+y := x daysInYear. "days in year (365|366)"
+y := x daysLeftInYear. "days left in year (364|365)"
+y := x asSeconds. "seconds elapsed since 1/1/1901"
+y := x addDays: 10. "add days to date object"
+y := x subtractDays: 10. "subtract days to date object"
+y := x subtractDate: (Date today). "subtract date (result in days)"
+y := x printFormat: #(2 1 3 $/ 1 1). "print formatted date"
+b := (x <= Date today). "comparison"
+```
+
+## Time:
+```
+| x y |
+x := Time now. "create time from current time"
+x := Time dateAndTimeNow. "create time from current time/date"
+x := Time readFromString: '3:47:26 pm'. "create time from formatted string"
+x := Time fromSeconds: (60 * 60 * 4). "create time from elapsed time from midnight"
+y := Time millisecondClockValue. "milliseconds since midnight"
+y := Time totalSeconds. "total seconds since 1/1/1901"
+y := x seconds. "seconds past minute (0-59)"
+y := x minutes. "minutes past hour (0-59)"
+y := x hours. "hours past midnight (0-23)"
+y := x addTime: (Time now). "add time to time object"
+y := x subtractTime: (Time now). "subtract time to time object"
+y := x asSeconds. "convert time to seconds"
+x := Time millisecondsToRun: [ "timing facility"
+ 1 to: 1000 do: [:index | y := 3.14 * index]].
+b := (x <= Time now). "comparison"
+```
+
+## Point:
+```
+| x y |
+x := 200@100. "obtain a new point"
+y := x x. "x coordinate"
+y := x y. "y coordinate"
+x := 200@100 negated. "negates x and y"
+x := (-200@-100) abs. "absolute value of x and y"
+x := (200.5@100.5) rounded. "round x and y"
+x := (200.5@100.5) truncated. "truncate x and y"
+x := 200@100 + 100. "add scale to both x and y"
+x := 200@100 - 100. "subtract scale from both x and y"
+x := 200@100 * 2. "multiply x and y by scale"
+x := 200@100 / 2. "divide x and y by scale"
+x := 200@100 // 2. "divide x and y by scale"
+x := 200@100 \\ 3. "remainder of x and y by scale"
+x := 200@100 + 50@25. "add points"
+x := 200@100 - 50@25. "subtract points"
+x := 200@100 * 3@4. "multiply points"
+x := 200@100 // 3@4. "divide points"
+x := 200@100 max: 50@200. "max x and y"
+x := 200@100 min: 50@200. "min x and y"
+x := 20@5 dotProduct: 10@2. "sum of product (x1*x2 + y1*y2)"
+```
+
+## Rectangle:
+```
+Rectangle fromUser.
+```
+
+## Pen:
+```
+| myPen |
+Display restoreAfter: [
+ Display fillWhite.
+
+myPen := Pen new. "get graphic pen"
+myPen squareNib: 1.
+myPen color: (Color blue). "set pen color"
+myPen home. "position pen at center of display"
+myPen up. "makes nib unable to draw"
+myPen down. "enable the nib to draw"
+myPen north. "points direction towards top"
+myPen turn: -180. "add specified degrees to direction"
+myPen direction. "get current angle of pen"
+myPen go: 50. "move pen specified number of pixels"
+myPen location. "get the pen position"
+myPen goto: 200@200. "move to specified point"
+myPen place: 250@250. "move to specified point without drawing"
+myPen print: 'Hello World' withFont: (TextStyle default fontAt: 1).
+Display extent. "get display width@height"
+Display width. "get display width"
+Display height. "get display height"
+
+].
+```
+
+## Dynamic Message Calling/Compiling:
+```
+| receiver message result argument keyword1 keyword2 argument1 argument2 |
+"unary message"
+receiver := 5.
+message := 'factorial' asSymbol.
+result := receiver perform: message.
+result := Compiler evaluate: ((receiver storeString), ' ', message).
+result := (Message new setSelector: message arguments: #()) sentTo: receiver.
+
+"binary message"
+receiver := 1.
+message := '+' asSymbol.
+argument := 2.
+result := receiver perform: message withArguments: (Array with: argument).
+result := Compiler evaluate: ((receiver storeString), ' ', message, ' ', (argument storeString)).
+result := (Message new setSelector: message arguments: (Array with: argument)) sentTo: receiver.
+
+"keyword messages"
+receiver := 12.
+keyword1 := 'between:' asSymbol.
+keyword2 := 'and:' asSymbol.
+argument1 := 10.
+argument2 := 20.
+result := receiver
+ perform: (keyword1, keyword2) asSymbol
+ withArguments: (Array with: argument1 with: argument2).
+result := Compiler evaluate:
+ ((receiver storeString), ' ', keyword1, (argument1 storeString) , ' ', keyword2, (argument2 storeString)).
+result := (Message
+ new
+ setSelector: (keyword1, keyword2) asSymbol
+ arguments: (Array with: argument1 with: argument2))
+ sentTo: receiver.
+```
+
+## Class/Meta-class:
+```
+| b x |
+x := String name. "class name"
+x := String category. "organization category"
+x := String comment. "class comment"
+x := String kindOfSubclass. "subclass type - subclass: variableSubclass, etc"
+x := String definition. "class definition"
+x := String instVarNames. "immediate instance variable names"
+x := String allInstVarNames. "accumulated instance variable names"
+x := String classVarNames. "immediate class variable names"
+x := String allClassVarNames. "accumulated class variable names"
+x := String sharedPools. "immediate dictionaries used as shared pools"
+x := String allSharedPools. "accumulated dictionaries used as shared pools"
+x := String selectors. "message selectors for class"
+x := String sourceCodeAt: #size. "source code for specified method"
+x := String allInstances. "collection of all instances of class"
+x := String superclass. "immediate superclass"
+x := String allSuperclasses. "accumulated superclasses"
+x := String withAllSuperclasses. "receiver class and accumulated superclasses"
+x := String subclasses. "immediate subclasses"
+x := String allSubclasses. "accumulated subclasses"
+x := String withAllSubclasses. "receiver class and accumulated subclasses"
+b := String instSize. "number of named instance variables"
+b := String isFixed. "true if no indexed instance variables"
+b := String isVariable. "true if has indexed instance variables"
+b := String isPointers. "true if index instance vars contain objects"
+b := String isBits. "true if index instance vars contain bytes/words"
+b := String isBytes. "true if index instance vars contain bytes"
+b := String isWords. true if index instance vars contain words"
+Object withAllSubclasses size. "get total number of class entries"
+```
+
+## Debuging:
+```
+| a b x |
+x yourself. "returns receiver"
+String browse. "browse specified class"
+x inspect. "open object inspector window"
+x confirm: 'Is this correct?'.
+x halt. "breakpoint to open debugger window"
+x halt: 'Halt message'.
+x notify: 'Notify text'.
+x error: 'Error string'. "open up error window with title"
+x doesNotUnderstand: #cmrMessage. "flag message is not handled"
+x shouldNotImplement. "flag message should not be implemented"
+x subclassResponsibility. "flag message as abstract"
+x errorImproperStore. "flag an improper store into indexable object"
+x errorNonIntegerIndex. "flag only integers should be used as index"
+x errorSubscriptBounds. "flag subscript out of bounds"
+x primitiveFailed. "system primitive failed"
+
+a := 'A1'. b := 'B2'. a become: b. "switch two objects"
+Transcript show: a, b; cr.
+```
+
+## Misc
+```
+| x |
+"Smalltalk condenseChanges." "compress the change file"
+x := FillInTheBlank request: 'Prompt Me'. "prompt user for input"
+Utilities openCommandKeyHelp
+```
+
+
+
+
+## Ready For More?
+
+### Free Online
+
+* [GNU Smalltalk User's Guide](https://www.gnu.org/software/smalltalk/manual/html_node/Tutorial.html)
+* [smalltalk dot org](http://www.smalltalk.org/smalltalk/learning.html)
+* [Computer Programming using GNU Smalltalk](http://www.canol.info/books/computer_programming_using_gnu_smalltalk/)
+* [Smalltalk Cheatsheet](http://www.angelfire.com/tx4/cus/notes/smalltalk.html)
+* [Smalltalk-72 Manual](http://www.bitsavers.org/pdf/xerox/parc/techReports/Smalltalk-72_Instruction_Manual_Mar76.pdf)
+* [BYTE: A Special issue on Smalltalk](https://archive.org/details/byte-magazine-1981-08)
+* [Smalltalk, Objects, and Design](https://books.google.co.in/books?id=W8_Une9cbbgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=smalltalk&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CCIQ6AEwAWoVChMIw63Vo6CpyAIV0HGOCh3S2Alf#v=onepage&q=smalltalk&f=false)
+* [Smalltalk: An Introduction to Application Development Using VisualWorks](https://books.google.co.in/books?id=zalQAAAAMAAJ&q=smalltalk&dq=smalltalk&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CCgQ6AEwAmoVChMIw63Vo6CpyAIV0HGOCh3S2Alf/)
diff --git a/tcl.html.markdown b/tcl.html.markdown
index af2911c9..3982807f 100644
--- a/tcl.html.markdown
+++ b/tcl.html.markdown
@@ -356,7 +356,7 @@ eval $command ;# There is an error here, because there are too many arguments \
set replacement {Archibald Sorbisol}
set command {set name $replacement}
set command [subst $command]
-eval $command ;# The same error as before: to many arguments to "set" in \
+eval $command ;# The same error as before: too many arguments to "set" in \
{set name Archibald Sorbisol}
diff --git a/tr-tr/csharp-tr.html.markdown b/tr-tr/csharp-tr.html.markdown
index a68026a5..91c7c269 100644
--- a/tr-tr/csharp-tr.html.markdown
+++ b/tr-tr/csharp-tr.html.markdown
@@ -234,7 +234,8 @@ on a new line! ""Wow!"", the masses cried";
// Üçlü operatörler
// Basit bir if/else ifadesi şöyle yazılabilir
// ? :
- string isTrue = (true) ? "True" : "False";
+ int toCompare = 17;
+ string isTrue = toCompare == 17 ? "True" : "False";
// While döngüsü
int fooWhile = 0;
diff --git a/tr-tr/swift-tr.html.markdown b/tr-tr/swift-tr.html.markdown
index 90f3fcd5..c13f5ecf 100644
--- a/tr-tr/swift-tr.html.markdown
+++ b/tr-tr/swift-tr.html.markdown
@@ -7,13 +7,10 @@ lang: tr-tr
---
Swift iOS ve OSX platformlarında geliştirme yapmak için Apple tarafından oluşturulan yeni bir programlama dilidir. Objective - C ile beraber kullanılabilecek ve de hatalı kodlara karşı daha esnek bir yapı sunacak bir şekilde tasarlanmıştır. Swift 2014 yılında Apple'ın geliştirici konferansı WWDC de tanıtıldı. Xcode 6+'a dahil edilen LLVM derleyici ile geliştirildi.
-
-The official [Swift Programming Language](https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/swift-programming-language/id881256329) book from Apple is now available via iBooks.
+
Apple'ın resmi [Swift Programlama Dili](https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/swift-programming-language/id881256329) kitabı iBooks'ta yerini aldı.
-See also Apple's [getting started guide](https://developer.apple.com/library/prerelease/ios/referencelibrary/GettingStarted/RoadMapiOS/index.html), which has a complete tutorial on Swift.
-
Ayrıca Swift ile gelen tüm özellikleri görmek için Apple'ın [başlangıç kılavuzu](https://developer.apple.com/library/prerelease/ios/referencelibrary/GettingStarted/RoadMapiOS/index.html)na bakmanızda yarar var.
@@ -244,7 +241,7 @@ print("Benzin fiyatı: \(fiyat)")
// Çeşitli Argümanlar
func ayarla(sayilar: Int...) {
- // its an array
+ // bu bir dizidir
let sayi = sayilar[0]
let argumanSAyisi = sayilar.count
}
diff --git a/visualbasic.html.markdown b/visualbasic.html.markdown
index 00d61843..f9906e96 100644
--- a/visualbasic.html.markdown
+++ b/visualbasic.html.markdown
@@ -236,7 +236,7 @@ Module Module1
'Nine
Private Sub IfElseStatement()
Console.Title = "If / Else Statement | Learn X in Y Minutes"
- 'Sometimes its important to consider more than two alternatives.
+ 'Sometimes it is important to consider more than two alternatives.
'Sometimes there are a good few others.
'When this is the case, more than one if statement would be required.
'An if statement is great for vending machines. Where the user enters a code.
diff --git a/zh-cn/csharp-cn.html.markdown b/zh-cn/csharp-cn.html.markdown
index a3cda5b3..971c1be9 100644
--- a/zh-cn/csharp-cn.html.markdown
+++ b/zh-cn/csharp-cn.html.markdown
@@ -232,7 +232,8 @@ on a new line! ""Wow!"", the masses cried";
// 三元表达式
// 简单的 if/else 语句可以写成：
// <条件> ? <真> : <假>
- string isTrue = (true) ? "True" : "False";
+ int toCompare = 17;
+ string isTrue = toCompare == 17 ? "True" : "False";
// While 循环
int fooWhile = 0;
diff --git a/zh-cn/javascript-cn.html.markdown b/zh-cn/javascript-cn.html.markdown
index dfeb2012..bdef0099 100644
--- a/zh-cn/javascript-cn.html.markdown
+++ b/zh-cn/javascript-cn.html.markdown
@@ -447,9 +447,6 @@ myNumber === myNumberObj; // = false
if (0){
// 这段代码不会执行，因为0代表假
}
-if (Number(0)){
- // 这段代码*会*执行，因为Number(0)代表真
-}
// 不过，包装类型和内置类型共享一个原型，
// 所以你实际可以给内置类型也增加一些功能，例如对string：