--- language: forth contributors: - ["Horse M.D.", "http://github.com/HorseMD/"] filename: learnforth.fs --- Forth was created by Charles H. Moore in the 70s. Note: This article focuses predominantly on the Gforth implementation of Forth, but most of what is written here should work elsewhere. > If Lisp is the ultimate high level lang, Forth is the ultimate low level lang. ```forth \ Forth is an interactive programming language which is comprised of \ *words*. These are Forth subroutines which are executed once you press \ , from left to right. \ --------------------------------- Precursor ---------------------------------- \ It's important to know how Forth processes instructions. All \ programming in Forth is done by manipulating what's known as the parameter \ stack (more commonly just referred to as "the stack"). Typing: 5 2 3 56 76 23 65 \ Makes those numbers get added to the stack, from left to right. .s \ <7> 5 2 3 56 76 23 65 ok \ Forth's interpreter interprets what you type in one of two ways: as *words* \ (i.e. the name of subroutines) or as *numbers*. \ ------------------------------ Basic Arithmetic ------------------------------ \ Arithmetic (in fact most words requiring data) works by manipulating data on \ the stack. 5 4 + \ ok \ This adds 5 and 4 to the stack and then `+` is called, which removes them and \ adds the result to the stack. We can see it with `.`: . \ 9 ok \ A few more examples of arithmetic 6 7 * . \ 42 ok 1360 23 - . \ 1337 ok 12 12 / . \ 1 ok \ ----------------------------- Stack Manipulation ----------------------------- \ Naturally, as we work with the stack, we'll want some useful methods: 3 dup - \ duplicate the top item (1st now equals 2nd): 3 - 3 2 5 swap / \ swap the top with the second element: 5 / 2 6 4 5 rot .s \ rotate the top 3 elements: 4 5 6 ok 4 0 drop 2 / \ remove the top item (dont print to screen): 4 / 2 \ ---------------------- More Advanced Stack Manipulation ---------------------- 1 2 3 4 tuck \ duplicate the top item into the second slot: 1 2 4 3 4 ok 1 2 3 4 over \ duplicate the second item to the top: 1 2 3 4 3 ok 1 2 3 4 2 roll \ *move* the item at that position to the top: 1 3 4 2 ok 1 2 3 4 2 pick \ *duplicate* the item at that position to the top: 1 2 3 4 2 ok \ When referring to stack indexes, they are zero-based. \ ------------------------------ Creating Words -------------------------------- \ Quite often one will want to write their own words. : square ( n -- n ) dup * ; \ ok \ The `:` word sets Forth into compile mode. `(` and `)` are both words which \ tell Forth to ignore between them. Up until the `;` word is what our word \ does. \ We can check the definition of a word with the `see` word: see square \ dup * ; ok \ -------------------------------- Conditionals -------------------------------- \ In Forth, -1 is used to represent truth, and 0 is used to represent false. \ The idea is that -1 is 11111111 in binary, whereas 0 is obviously 0 in binary. \ However, any non-zero value is usually treated as being true: 42 42 = / -1 ok 12 53 = / 0 ok \ `if` is a *compile-only word*. This means that it can only be used when we're \ compiling a word. The format is `if` `then` . : ?>64 ( n -- n ) DUP 64 > if ." Greater than 64!" then ; \ ok 100 ?>64 \ Greater than 64! ok \ Else: : ?>64 ( n -- n ) DUP 64 > if ." Greater than 64!" else ." Less than 64!" then ; 100 ?>64 \ Greater than 64! ok 20 ?>64 \ Less than 64! ok \ ------------------------------------ Loops ----------------------------------- \ `do` is like `if` in that it is also a compile-only word, though it uses \ `loop` as its terminator: : myloop ( -- ) 5 0 do cr ." Hello!" loop ; \ ok test \ Hello! \ Hello! \ Hello! \ Hello! \ Hello! ok \ `do` expects two numbers on the stack: the end number and the index number: \ Get the value of the index as we loop with `i`: : one-to-12 ( -- ) 12 0 do i . loop ; \ ok one-to-12 \ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 ok : squares ( -- ) 10 0 do i DUP * . loop ; \ ok squares \ 0 1 4 9 16 25 36 49 64 81 ok \ Change the "step" with `+loop`: : threes ( -- ) 15 0 do i . 3 +loop ; \ ok threes \ 0 3 6 9 12 ok \ Finally, while loops with `begin` `unil`: : death ( -- ) begin ." Are we there yet?" 0 until ; \ ---------------------------- Variables and Memory ---------------------------- \ Sometimes we'll be in a situation where we want more permanent variables: \ First, we use `variable` to declare `age` to be a variable. variable age \ Then we write 21 to age with the word `!`. 21 age ! \ Finally we can print our variable using the "read" word '@', which adds the \ value to the stack, or use `?` that reads and prints it in one go. age @ . \ 12 ok age ? \ 12 ok \ What's happening here is that `age` stores the memory address, and we use `!` \ and `@` to manipulate it. \ Constants are quite simiar, except we don't bother with memory addresses: 100 constant WATER-BOILING-POINT \ ok WATER-BOILING-POINT . \ 100 ok \ ----------------------------------- Arrays ----------------------------------- \ Set up an array of length 3: variable mynumbers 2 cells allot \ Initialize all the values to 0 mynumbers 3 cells erase \ (alternatively we could do `0 fill` instead of `erase`, but as we're setting \ them to 0 we just use `erase`). \ or we can just skip all the above and initialize with specific values: create mynumbers 64 , 9001 , 1337 , \ the last `,` is important! \ ...which is equivalent to: \ [64, 9001, 1337] 64 mynumbers 0 cells + ! 9001 mynumbers 1 cells + ! 1337 mynumbers 2 cells + ! \ Reading values at certain array indexes: 0 cells mynumbers + ? \ 64 ok 1 cells mynumbers + ? \ 9001 ok 2 cells mynumbers + ? \ 1337 ok \ Of course, you'll probably want to define your own words to manipulate arrays: : ?mynumbers ( n -- n ) cells mynumbers + ; \ ok 64 mynumbers 2 cells + ! \ ok 2 ?mynumbers ? \ 64 ok \ ------------------------------ The Return Stack ------------------------------ \ The return stack is used by Forth to the hold pointers to things when \ words are executing other words, e.g. loops. \ We've already seen one use of it: `i`, which duplicates the top of the return \ stack. `i` is equivalent to `r@`. : myloop ( -- ) 5 0 do r@ . loop ; \ As well as reading, we can add to the return stack and remove from it: 5 6 4 >r swap r> .s \ 6 5 4 \ NOTE: Because Forth uses the return stack for word pointers, it's essential \ that you set the return stack back to how it was at the end of your \ definition. `>r` should always be followed by `r>`. \ ------------------------- Floating Point Operations -------------------------- \ Most Forths tend to dislike the use of floating point operations. We write \ floating point operations with scientific notation. 8.3e 0.8e f+ f. \ 9.1 ok \ Usually we can just prepend arithmetic words with 'f' to use floating point \ arithmetic: variable myfloatingvar \ ok 4.4e myfloatingvar f! \ ok myfloatingvar f@ f. \ 4.4 ok \ --------------------------------- Final Notes -------------------------------- \ bye ``` ##Ready For More? * [Starting Forth](http://www.forth.com/starting-forth/) * [Thinking Forth](http://thinking-forth.sourceforge.net/)