learnxinyminutes-docs/neat.html.markdown

language	contributors	filename
neat	Feep https://github.com/FeepingCreature	LearnNeat.nt

Neat is basically a smaller version of D1 with some experimental syntax and a focus on terseness without losing the basic C-like syntax.

Read more here.

// single line comments start with //
/*
  multiline comments look like this
*/
/+
  or this
  /+ these can be nested too, same as D +/
+/

// Module name. This has to match the filename/directory.
module LearnNeat;

// Make names from another module visible in this one.
import std.file;
// You can import multiple things at once.
import std.math, std.util;
// You can even group up imports!
import std.(process, socket);

// Global functions!
void foo() { }

// Main function, same as in C.
// string[] == "array of strings".
// "string" is just an alias for char[],
void main(string[] args) {
  // Call functions with "function expression".
  writeln "Hello World";
  // You can do it like in C too... if you really want.
  writeln ("Hello World");
  // Declare a variable with "type identifier"
  string arg = ("Hello World");
  writeln arg;
  // (expression, expression) forms a tuple.
  // There are no one-value tuples though.
  // So you can always use () in the mathematical sense.
  // (string) arg; <- is an error
  
  /*
    byte: 8 bit signed integer
      char: 8 bit UTF-8 byte component.
    short: 16 bit signed integer
    int: 32 bit signed integer
    long: 64 bit signed integer
    
    float: 32 bit floating point
    double: 64 bit floating point
    real: biggest native size floating point (80 bit on x86).
    
    bool: true or false
  */
  int a = 5;
  bool b = true;
  // as in C, && and || are short-circuit evaluating.
  b = b && false;
  assert(b == false);
  // "" are "format strings". So $variable will be substituted at runtime
  // with a formatted version of the variable.
  writeln "$a";
  // This will just print $a.
  writeln `$a`;
  // you can format expressions with $()
  writeln "$(2+2)";
  // Note: there is no special syntax for characters.
  char c = "a";
  // Cast values by using type: expression.
  // There are three kinds of casts:
  // casts that just specify conversions that would be happening automatically
  // (implicit casts)
  float f = float:5;
  float f2 = 5; // would also work
  // casts that require throwing away information or complicated computation -
  // those must always be done explicitly
  // (conversion casts)
  int i = int:f;
  // int i = f; // would not work!
  // and, as a last attempt, casts that just reinterpret the raw data.
  // Those only work if the types have the same size.
  string s = "Hello World";
  // Arrays are (length, pointer) pairs.
  // This is a tuple type. Tuple types are (type, type, type).
  // The type of a tuple expression is a tuple type. (duh)
  (int, char*) array = (int, char*): s;
  // You can index arrays and tuples using the expression[index] syntax.
  writeln "pointer is $(array[1]) and length is $(array[0])";
  // You can slice them using the expression[from .. to] syntax.
  // Slicing an array makes another array.
  writeln "$(s[0..5]) World";
  // Alias name = expression gives the expression a name.
  // As opposed to a variable, aliases do not have an address
  // and can not be assigned to. (Unless the expression is assignable)
  alias range = 0 .. 5;
  writeln "$(s[range]) World";
  // You can iterate over ranges.
  for int i <- range {
    write "$(s[i])";
  }
  writeln " World";
  // Note that if "range" had been a variable, it would be 'empty' now!
  // Range variables can only be iterated once.
  // The syntax for iteration is "expression <- iterable".
  // Lots of things are iterable.
  for char c <- "Hello" { write "$c"; }
  writeln " World";
  // For loops are "for test statement";
  alias test = char d <- "Hello";
  for test write "$d";
  writeln " World\t\x05"; // note: escapes work
  // Pointers: function the same as in C, btw. The usual.
  // Do note: the pointer star sticks with the TYPE, not the VARIABLE!
  string* p;
  assert(p == null); // default initializer
  p = &s;
  writeln "$(*p)";
  // Math operators are (almost) standard.
  int x = 2 + 3 * 4 << 5;
  // Note: XOR is "xor". ^ is reserved for exponentiation (once I implement that).
  int y = 3 xor 5;
  int z = 5;
  assert(z++ == 5);
  assert(++z == 7);
  writeln "x $x y $y z $z";
  // As in D, ~ concatenates.
  string hewo = "Hello " ~ "World";
  // == tests for equality, "is" tests for identity.
  assert  (hewo == s);
  assert !(hewo is s);
  // same as
  assert  (hewo !is s);
  
  // Allocate arrays using "new array length"
  int[] integers = new int[] 10;
  assert(integers.length == 10);
  assert(integers[0] == 0); // zero is default initializer
  integers = integers ~ 5; // This allocates a new array!
  assert(integers.length == 11);
  
  // This is an appender array.
  // Instead of (length, pointer), it tracks (capacity, length, pointer).
  // When you append to it, it will use the free capacity if it can.
  // If it runs out of space, it reallocates - but it will free the old array automatically.
  // This makes it convenient for building arrays.
  int[auto~] appender;
  appender ~= 2;
  appender ~= 3;
  appender.free(); // same as {mem.free(appender.ptr); appender = null;}
  
  // Scope variables are automatically freed at the end of the current scope.
  scope int[auto~] someOtherAppender;
  // This is the same as:
  int[auto~] someOtherAppender2;
  onExit { someOtherAppender2.free; }
  
  // You can do a C for loop too
  // - but why would you want to?
  for (int i = 0; i < 5; ++i) { }
  // Otherwise, for and while are the same.
  while int i <- 0..4 {
    assert(i == 0);
    break; // continue works too
  } then assert(false); // if we hadn't break'd, this would run at the end
  // This is the height of loopdom - the produce-test-consume loop.
  do {
    int i = 5;
  } while (i == 5) {
    assert(i == 5);
    break; // otherwise we'd go back up to do {
  }
  
  // This is a nested function.
  // Nested functions can access the surrounding function.
  string returnS() { return s; }
  writeln returnS();
  
  // Take the address of a function using &
  // The type of a global function is ReturnType function(ParameterTypeTuple).
  void function() foop = &foo;
  
  // Similarly, the type of a nested function is ReturnType delegate(ParameterTypeTuple).
  string delegate() returnSp = &returnS;
  writeln returnSp();
  // Class member functions and struct member functions also fit into delegate variables.
  // In general, delegates are functions that carry an additional context pointer.
  // ("fat pointers" in C)
  
  // Allocate a "snapshot" with "new delegate".
  // Snapshots are not closures! I used to call them closures too,
  // but then my Haskell-using friends yelled at me so I had to stop.
  // The difference is that snapshots "capture" their surrounding context
  // when "new" is used.
  // This allows things like this
  int delegate(int) add(int a) {
    int add_a(int b) { return a + b; }
    // This does not work - the context of add_a becomes invalid
    // when add returns.
    // return &add_a;
    // Instead:
    return new &add_a;
  }
  int delegate(int) dg = add 2;
  assert (dg(3) == 5);
  // or
  assert (((add 2) 3) == 5);
  // or
  assert (add 2 3 == 5);
  // add can also be written as
  int delegate(int) add2(int a) {
    // this is an implicit, nameless nested function.
    return new λ(int b) { return a + b; }
  }
  // or even
  auto add3(int a) { return new λ(int b) -> a + b; }
  // hahahaaa
  auto add4 = λ(int a) -> new λ(int b) -> a + b;
  assert(add4 2 3 == 5);
  // If your keyboard doesn't have a λ (you poor sod)
  // you can use \ too.
  auto add5 = \(int a) -> new \(int b) -> a + b;
  // Note!
  auto nestfun = λ() { } // There is NO semicolon needed here!
  // "}" can always substitute for "};".
  // This provides syntactic consistency with built-in statements.
  
  
  // This is a class.
  // Note: almost all elements of Neat can be used on the module level
  //       or just as well inside a function.
  class C {
    int a;
    void writeA() { writeln "$a"; }
    // It's a nested class - it exists in the context of main().
    // so if you leave main(), any instances of C become invalid.
    void writeS() { writeln "$s"; }
  }
  C cc = new C;
  // cc is a *reference* to C. Classes are always references.
  cc.a = 5; // Always used for property access.
  auto ccp = &cc;
  (*ccp).a = 6;
  // or just
  ccp.a = 7;
  cc.writeA();
  cc.writeS(); // to prove I'm not making things up
  // Interfaces work same as in D, basically. Or Java.
  interface E { void doE(); }
  // Inheritance works same as in D, basically. Or Java.
  class D : C, E {
    override void writeA() { writeln "hahahahaha no"; }
    override void doE() { writeln "eeeee"; }
    // all classes inherit from Object. (toString is defined in Object)
    override string toString() { return "I am a D"; }
  }
  C cd = new D;
  // all methods are always virtual.
  cd.writeA();
  E e = E:cd; // dynamic class cast!
  e.doE();
  writeln "$e"; // all interfaces convert to Object implicitly.
  
  // Templates!
  // Templates are parameterized namespaces, taking a type as a parameter.
  template Templ(T) {
    alias hi = 5, hii = 8;
    // Templates always have to include something with the same name as the template
    // - this will become the template's _value_.
    // Static ifs are evaluated statically, at compile-time.
    // Because of this, the test has to be a constant expression,
    // or something that can be optimized to a constant.
    static if (types-equal (T, int)) {
      alias Templ = hi;
    } else {
      alias Templ = hii;
    }
  }
  assert(Templ!int == 5);
  assert(Templ!float == 8);
}

Topics Not Covered

• Extended iterator types and expressions
• Standard library
• Conditions (error handling)
• Macros