mirror of
https://github.com/adambard/learnxinyminutes-docs.git
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e336c909b9
* Explain that you cannot pass immutable values like integers to subs even if you use $n is rw.
* Add myself as a contributor
* Remove contributor since I am not a major contributor
* Add many more smartmatch examples. Make the ternary operatory clearer and add a code example for it. Make the section for && and || have a working code example and show the output it gives
* Fix assigning $a $b and $c values in the && operator section
* Rename a few things so they don't conflict with variables in other parts of the code
* Remove extra dashes
* Move description of smartmatch type checks toward the end of that section
* Better names for scoping examples
* Redo the example for dynamically scoped variables so the example is better and functions properly when ran (old example did not work properly when running it by itself)
* Rename these classes so they aren't named the same as the ones above
* Add information about the different twigils in Perl 6. This makes understanding what $. $! and $* are and how they relate. Also complete the renaming in the previous commit
* Fix capitalization and indenting here
* Using the word interpolate to mean accessing an element of an array is not the proper terminology. Using the word interpolate is usually associated with things such as this: say "@names = { @names.perl }"
* Make the wording a little clearer for arrays
* Remove incorrect information about hashes. Hashes are not arrays of pairs although Perl 6 makes it easy to use them as such
* Make the subroutine text read better
* Clean up the Object Model introduction section
* Fix the section on interpolating all elements of an array
* Use the word attribute instead of field since this is the wording that the perl 6 documentation uses for these objects
* Fix column width in a few places
* More clearly mark which twigils are used for "normal" variables and which ones are used on "objects". This makes the flow from the # Scoping => # Twigil => # Object Model section smoother
* Semi-rewrite the example for object inheritance and use more natural names. Also rename class A to class Attrib-Class
* Clean up the scoping introduction a little
* Remove a leftover line from rewriting the inheritance example
* More gradually introduce exceptions and fix a typo, as well as adding a few examples
* Reorder introduction of packages to be more natural. Show how to "use" a package before we show how to create and declare our own modules
* Avoid using the word 'use' because we're not refering to the perl keyword 'use'
1568 lines
60 KiB
Markdown
1568 lines
60 KiB
Markdown
---
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category: language
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language: perl6
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filename: learnperl6.pl
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contributors:
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- ["vendethiel", "http://github.com/vendethiel"]
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---
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Perl 6 is a highly capable, feature-rich programming language made for at
|
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least the next hundred years.
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The primary Perl 6 compiler is called [Rakudo](http://rakudo.org), which runs on
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the JVM and [the MoarVM](http://moarvm.com).
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Meta-note : the triple pound signs are here to denote headlines,
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double paragraphs, and single notes.
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`#=>` represents the output of a command.
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```perl
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# Single line comment start with a pound
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#`(
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Multiline comments use #` and a quoting construct.
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(), [], {}, 「」, etc, will work.
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)
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||
|
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### Variables
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# In Perl 6, you declare a lexical variable using `my`
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my $variable;
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# Perl 6 has 4 kinds of variables:
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## * Scalars. They represent a single value. They start with a `$`
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my $str = 'String';
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# double quotes allow for interpolation (which we'll see later):
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my $str2 = "String";
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# Variable names can contain but not end with simple quotes and dashes,
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# and can contain (and end with) underscores :
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# my $weird'variable-name_ = 5; # works !
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my $bool = True; # `True` and `False` are Perl 6's boolean values.
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my $inverse = !$bool; # You can invert a bool with the prefix `!` operator
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my $forced-bool = so $str; # And you can use the prefix `so` operator
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# which turns its operand into a Bool
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## * Lists. They represent multiple values. Their name start with `@`.
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my @array = 'a', 'b', 'c';
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# equivalent to :
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my @letters = <a b c>; # array of words, delimited by space.
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# Similar to perl5's qw, or Ruby's %w.
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my @array = 1, 2, 3;
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say @array[2]; # Array indices start at 0 -- This is the third element
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say "Interpolate all elements of an array using [] : @array[]";
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#=> Interpolate all elements of an array using [] : 1 2 3
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@array[0] = -1; # Assign a new value to an array index
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@array[0, 1] = 5, 6; # Assign multiple values
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my @keys = 0, 2;
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@array[@keys] = @letters; # Assignment using an array containing index values
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say @array; #=> a 6 b
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## * Hashes, or key-value Pairs.
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# Hashes are pairs of keys and values.
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# You can construct a Pair object using the syntax `Key => Value`.
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# Hash tables are very fast for lookup, and are stored unordered.
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# Keep in mind that keys get "flattened" in hash context, and any duplicated
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# keys are deduplicated.
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my %hash = 1 => 2,
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3 => 4;
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my %hash = foo => "bar", # keys get auto-quoted
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"some other" => "value", # trailing commas are okay
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;
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# Even though hashes are internally stored differently than arrays,
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# Perl 6 allows you to easily create a hash from an even numbered array:
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my %hash = <key1 value1 key2 value2>;
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my %hash = key1 => 'value1', key2 => 'value2'; # same result as above
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# You can also use the "colon pair" syntax:
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# (especially handy for named parameters that you'll see later)
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my %hash = :w(1), # equivalent to `w => 1`
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# this is useful for the `True` shortcut:
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:truey, # equivalent to `:truey(True)`, or `truey => True`
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# and for the `False` one:
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:!falsey, # equivalent to `:falsey(False)`, or `falsey => False`
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;
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say %hash{'key1'}; # You can use {} to get the value from a key
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say %hash<key2>; # If it's a string, you can actually use <>
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# (`{key1}` doesn't work, as Perl6 doesn't have barewords)
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## * Subs: subroutines or functions as most other languages call them are
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# created with the `sub` keyword.
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sub say-hello { say "Hello, world" }
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sub say-hello-to(Str $name) { # You can provide the type of an argument
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# and it'll be checked at compile-time.
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say "Hello, $name !";
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}
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## It can also have optional arguments:
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sub with-optional($arg?) { # the "?" marks the argument optional
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say "I might return `(Any)` (Perl's 'null'-like value) if I don't have
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an argument passed, or I'll return my argument";
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$arg;
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}
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with-optional; # returns Any
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with-optional(); # returns Any
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with-optional(1); # returns 1
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## You can also give them a default value when they're not passed:
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sub hello-to($name = "World") {
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say "Hello, $name !";
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}
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hello-to; #=> Hello, World !
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hello-to(); #=> Hello, World !
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hello-to('You'); #=> Hello, You !
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## You can also, by using a syntax akin to the one of hashes (yay unified syntax !),
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## pass *named* arguments to a `sub`.
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# They're optional, and will default to "Any".
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sub with-named($normal-arg, :$named) {
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say $normal-arg + $named;
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}
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with-named(1, named => 6); #=> 7
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# There's one gotcha to be aware of, here:
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# If you quote your key, Perl 6 won't be able to see it at compile time,
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# and you'll have a single Pair object as a positional parameter,
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# which means this fails:
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with-named(1, 'named' => 6);
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with-named(2, :named(5)); #=> 7
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# To make a named argument mandatory, you can use `?`'s inverse, `!`
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sub with-mandatory-named(:$str!) {
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say "$str !";
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}
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with-mandatory-named(str => "My String"); #=> My String !
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with-mandatory-named; # run time error: "Required named parameter not passed"
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with-mandatory-named(3); # run time error: "Too many positional parameters passed"
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## If a sub takes a named boolean argument ...
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sub takes-a-bool($name, :$bool) {
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say "$name takes $bool";
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}
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# ... you can use the same "short boolean" hash syntax:
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takes-a-bool('config', :bool); # config takes True
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takes-a-bool('config', :!bool); # config takes False
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## You can also provide your named arguments with defaults:
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sub named-def(:$def = 5) {
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say $def;
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}
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named-def; #=> 5
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named-def(def => 15); #=> 15
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# Since you can omit parenthesis to call a function with no arguments,
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# you need "&" in the name to store `say-hello` in a variable.
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my &s = &say-hello;
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my &other-s = sub { say "Anonymous function !" }
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# A sub can have a "slurpy" parameter, or "doesn't-matter-how-many"
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sub as-many($head, *@rest) { # `*@` (slurpy) will basically "take everything else".
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# Note: you can have parameters *before* (like here)
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# a slurpy one, but not *after*.
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say @rest.join(' / ') ~ " !";
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}
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say as-many('Happy', 'Happy', 'Birthday'); #=> Happy / Birthday !
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# Note that the splat (the *) did not
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# consume the parameter before.
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## You can call a function with an array using the
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# "argument list flattening" operator `|`
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# (it's not actually the only role of this operator, but it's one of them)
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sub concat3($a, $b, $c) {
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say "$a, $b, $c";
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}
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concat3(|@array); #=> a, b, c
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# `@array` got "flattened" as a part of the argument list
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### Containers
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# In Perl 6, values are actually stored in "containers".
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# The assignment operator asks the container on the left to store the value on
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# its right. When passed around, containers are marked as immutable.
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# Which means that, in a function, you'll get an error if you try to
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# mutate one of your arguments.
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# If you really need to, you can ask for a mutable container using `is rw`:
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sub mutate($n is rw) {
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$n++;
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say "\$n is now $n !";
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}
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my $m = 42;
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mutate $m; # $n is now 43 !
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# This works because we are passing the container $m to mutate. If we try
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# to just pass a number instead of passing a variable it won't work because
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# there is no container being passed and integers are immutable by themselves:
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mutate 42; # Parameter '$n' expected a writable container, but got Int value
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# If what you want a copy instead, use `is copy`.
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# A sub itself returns a container, which means it can be marked as rw:
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my $x = 42;
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sub x-store() is rw { $x }
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x-store() = 52; # in this case, the parentheses are mandatory
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# (else Perl 6 thinks `x-store` is an identifier)
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say $x; #=> 52
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### Control Flow Structures
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## Conditionals
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# - `if`
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# Before talking about `if`, we need to know which values are "Truthy"
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# (represent True), and which are "Falsey" (or "Falsy") -- represent False.
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# Only these values are Falsey: 0, (), {}, "", Nil, A type (like `Str` or `Int`),
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# and of course False itself.
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# Every other value is Truthy.
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if True {
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say "It's true !";
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}
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unless False {
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say "It's not false !";
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}
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# As you can see, you don't need parentheses around conditions.
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# However, you do need the brackets around the "body" block:
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# if (true) say; # This doesn't work !
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# You can also use their postfix versions, with the keyword after:
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say "Quite truthy" if True;
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# - Ternary conditional, "?? !!" (like `x ? y : z` in some other languages)
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# returns $value-if-true if the condition is true and $value-if-false
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# if it is false.
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# my $result = $value condition ?? $value-if-true !! $value-if-false;
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my $age = 30;
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say $age > 18 ?? "You are an adult" !! "You are under 18";
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# - `given`-`when` looks like other languages' `switch`, but is much more
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# powerful thanks to smart matching and Perl 6's "topic variable", $_.
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#
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# This variable contains the default argument of a block,
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# a loop's current iteration (unless explicitly named), etc.
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#
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# `given` simply puts its argument into `$_` (like a block would do),
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# and `when` compares it using the "smart matching" (`~~`) operator.
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#
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# Since other Perl 6 constructs use this variable (as said before, like `for`,
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# blocks, etc), this means the powerful `when` is not only applicable along with
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# a `given`, but instead anywhere a `$_` exists.
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given "foo bar" {
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say $_; #=> foo bar
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when /foo/ { # Don't worry about smart matching yet – just know `when` uses it.
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# This is equivalent to `if $_ ~~ /foo/`.
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say "Yay !";
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}
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when $_.chars > 50 { # smart matching anything with True (`$a ~~ True`) is True,
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# so you can also put "normal" conditionals.
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# This when is equivalent to this `if`:
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# if $_ ~~ ($_.chars > 50) {...}
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# Which means:
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# if $_.chars > 50 {...}
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say "Quite a long string !";
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}
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default { # same as `when *` (using the Whatever Star)
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say "Something else"
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}
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}
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## Looping constructs
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# - `loop` is an infinite loop if you don't pass it arguments,
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# but can also be a C-style `for` loop:
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loop {
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say "This is an infinite loop !";
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last; # last breaks out of the loop, like the `break` keyword in other languages
|
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}
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loop (my $i = 0; $i < 5; $i++) {
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next if $i == 3; # `next` skips to the next iteration, like `continue`
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# in other languages. Note that you can also use postfix
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# conditionals, loops, etc.
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say "This is a C-style for loop !";
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}
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# - `for` - Passes through an array
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for @array -> $variable {
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say "I've got $variable !";
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}
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# As we saw with given, for's default "current iteration" variable is `$_`.
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# That means you can use `when` in a `for` just like you were in a `given`.
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for @array {
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say "I've got $_";
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.say; # This is also allowed.
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# A dot call with no "topic" (receiver) is sent to `$_` by default
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$_.say; # the above and this are equivalent.
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}
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for @array {
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# You can...
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next if $_ == 3; # Skip to the next iteration (`continue` in C-like languages).
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redo if $_ == 4; # Re-do the iteration, keeping the same topic variable (`$_`).
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last if $_ == 5; # Or break out of a loop (like `break` in C-like languages).
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}
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||
# The "pointy block" syntax isn't specific to for.
|
||
# It's just a way to express a block in Perl6.
|
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if long-computation() -> $result {
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say "The result is $result";
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}
|
||
|
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### Operators
|
||
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## Since Perl languages are very much operator-based languages,
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## Perl 6 operators are actually just funny-looking subroutines, in syntactic
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## categories, like infix:<+> (addition) or prefix:<!> (bool not).
|
||
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## The categories are:
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# - "prefix": before (like `!` in `!True`).
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# - "postfix": after (like `++` in `$a++`).
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||
# - "infix": in between (like `*` in `4 * 3`).
|
||
# - "circumfix": around (like `[`-`]` in `[1, 2]`).
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||
# - "post-circumfix": around, after another term (like `{`-`}` in `%hash{'key'}`)
|
||
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## The associativity and precedence list are explained below.
|
||
|
||
# Alright, you're set to go !
|
||
|
||
## * Equality Checking
|
||
|
||
# - `==` is numeric comparison
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3 == 4; # False
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||
3 != 4; # True
|
||
|
||
# - `eq` is string comparison
|
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'a' eq 'b';
|
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'a' ne 'b'; # not equal
|
||
'a' !eq 'b'; # same as above
|
||
|
||
# - `eqv` is canonical equivalence (or "deep equality")
|
||
(1, 2) eqv (1, 3);
|
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|
||
# - Smart Match Operator: `~~`
|
||
# Aliases the left hand side to $_ and then evaluates the right hand side.
|
||
# Here are some common comparison semantics:
|
||
|
||
# String or Numeric Equality
|
||
|
||
'Foo' ~~ 'Foo'; # True if strings are equal.
|
||
12.5 ~~ 12.50; # True if numbers are equal.
|
||
|
||
# Regex - For matching a regular expression against the left side.
|
||
# Returns a (Match) object, which evaluates as True if regexp matches.
|
||
|
||
my $obj = 'abc' ~~ /a/;
|
||
say $obj; # ｢a｣
|
||
say $obj.WHAT; # (Match)
|
||
|
||
# Hashes
|
||
'key' ~~ %hash; # True if key exists in hash
|
||
|
||
# Type - Checks if left side "has type" (can check superclasses and roles)
|
||
|
||
1 ~~ Int; # True
|
||
|
||
# Smart-matching against a boolean always returns that boolean (and will warn).
|
||
|
||
1 ~~ True; # True
|
||
False ~~ True; # True
|
||
|
||
# # General syntax is $arg ~~ &bool-returning-function;
|
||
# For a complete list of combinations, use this table:
|
||
# http://perlcabal.org/syn/S03.html#Smart_matching
|
||
|
||
# You also, of course, have `<`, `<=`, `>`, `>=`.
|
||
# Their string equivalent are also avaiable : `lt`, `le`, `gt`, `ge`.
|
||
3 > 4;
|
||
|
||
## * Range constructors
|
||
3 .. 7; # 3 to 7, both included
|
||
# `^` on either side them exclusive on that side :
|
||
3 ^..^ 7; # 3 to 7, not included (basically `4 .. 6`)
|
||
# This also works as a shortcut for `0..^N`:
|
||
^10; # means 0..^10
|
||
|
||
# This also allows us to demonstrate that Perl 6 has lazy/infinite arrays,
|
||
# using the Whatever Star:
|
||
my @array = 1..*; # 1 to Infinite ! `1..Inf` is the same.
|
||
say @array[^10]; # you can pass arrays as subscripts and it'll return
|
||
# an array of results. This will print
|
||
# "1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10" (and not run out of memory !)
|
||
# Note : when reading an infinite list, Perl 6 will "reify" the elements
|
||
# it needs, then keep them in memory. They won't be calculated more than once.
|
||
# It also will never calculate more elements that are needed.
|
||
|
||
# An array subscript can also be a closure.
|
||
# It'll be called with the length as the argument
|
||
say join(' ', @array[15..*]); #=> 15 16 17 18 19
|
||
# which is equivalent to:
|
||
say join(' ', @array[-> $n { 15..$n }]);
|
||
# Note: if you try to do either of those with an infinite array,
|
||
# you'll trigger an infinite loop (your program won't finish)
|
||
|
||
# You can use that in most places you'd expect, even assigning to an array
|
||
my @numbers = ^20;
|
||
|
||
# Here numbers increase by "6"; more on `...` operator later.
|
||
my @seq = 3, 9 ... * > 95; # 3 9 15 21 27 [...] 81 87 93 99;
|
||
@numbers[5..*] = 3, 9 ... *; # even though the sequence is infinite,
|
||
# only the 15 needed values will be calculated.
|
||
say @numbers; #=> 0 1 2 3 4 3 9 15 21 [...] 81 87
|
||
# (only 20 values)
|
||
|
||
## * And &&, Or ||
|
||
3 && 4; # 4, which is Truthy. Calls `.Bool` on `4` and gets `True`.
|
||
0 || False; # False. Calls `.Bool` on `0`
|
||
|
||
## * Short-circuit (and tight) versions of the above
|
||
# Returns the first argument that evaluates to False, or the last argument.
|
||
|
||
my ( $a, $b, $c ) = 1, 0, 2;
|
||
$a && $b && $c; # Returns 0, the first False value
|
||
|
||
# || Returns the first argument that evaluates to True
|
||
$b || $a; # 1
|
||
|
||
# And because you're going to want them,
|
||
# you also have compound assignment operators:
|
||
$a *= 2; # multiply and assignment. Equivalent to $a = $a * 2;
|
||
$b %%= 5; # divisible by and assignment
|
||
@array .= sort; # calls the `sort` method and assigns the result back
|
||
|
||
### More on subs !
|
||
# As we said before, Perl 6 has *really* powerful subs. We're going to see
|
||
# a few more key concepts that make them better than in any other language :-).
|
||
|
||
## Unpacking !
|
||
# It's the ability to "extract" arrays and keys (AKA "destructuring").
|
||
# It'll work in `my`s and in parameter lists.
|
||
my ($f, $g) = 1, 2;
|
||
say $f; #=> 1
|
||
my ($, $, $h) = 1, 2, 3; # keep the non-interesting anonymous
|
||
say $h; #=> 3
|
||
|
||
my ($head, *@tail) = 1, 2, 3; # Yes, it's the same as with "slurpy subs"
|
||
my (*@small) = 1;
|
||
|
||
sub unpack_array(@array [$fst, $snd]) {
|
||
say "My first is $fst, my second is $snd ! All in all, I'm @array[].";
|
||
# (^ remember the `[]` to interpolate the array)
|
||
}
|
||
unpack_array(@tail); #=> My first is 2, my second is 3 ! All in all, I'm 2 3
|
||
|
||
|
||
# If you're not using the array itself, you can also keep it anonymous,
|
||
# much like a scalar:
|
||
sub first-of-array(@ [$fst]) { $fst }
|
||
first-of-array(@small); #=> 1
|
||
first-of-array(@tail); # Throws an error "Too many positional parameters passed"
|
||
# (which means the array is too big).
|
||
|
||
# You can also use a slurp ...
|
||
sub slurp-in-array(@ [$fst, *@rest]) { # You could keep `*@rest` anonymous
|
||
say $fst + @rest.elems; # `.elems` returns a list's length.
|
||
# Here, `@rest` is `(3,)`, since `$fst` holds the `2`.
|
||
}
|
||
slurp-in-array(@tail); #=> 3
|
||
|
||
# You could even extract on a slurpy (but it's pretty useless ;-).)
|
||
sub fst(*@ [$fst]) { # or simply : `sub fst($fst) { ... }`
|
||
say $fst;
|
||
}
|
||
fst(1); #=> 1
|
||
fst(1, 2); # errors with "Too many positional parameters passed"
|
||
|
||
# You can also destructure hashes (and classes, which you'll learn about later !)
|
||
# The syntax is basically `%hash-name (:key($variable-to-store-value-in))`.
|
||
# The hash can stay anonymous if you only need the values you extracted.
|
||
sub key-of(% (:value($val), :qua($qua))) {
|
||
say "Got val $val, $qua times.";
|
||
}
|
||
|
||
# Then call it with a hash: (you need to keep the brackets for it to be a hash)
|
||
key-of({value => 'foo', qua => 1});
|
||
#key-of(%hash); # the same (for an equivalent `%hash`)
|
||
|
||
## The last expression of a sub is returned automatically
|
||
# (though you may use the `return` keyword, of course):
|
||
sub next-index($n) {
|
||
$n + 1;
|
||
}
|
||
my $new-n = next-index(3); # $new-n is now 4
|
||
|
||
# This is true for everything, except for the looping constructs
|
||
# (due to performance reasons): there's reason to build a list
|
||
# if we're just going to discard all the results.
|
||
# If you still want to build one, you can use the `do` statement prefix:
|
||
# (or the `gather` prefix, which we'll see later)
|
||
sub list-of($n) {
|
||
do for ^$n { # note the use of the range-to prefix operator `^` (`0..^N`)
|
||
$_ # current loop iteration
|
||
}
|
||
}
|
||
my @list3 = list-of(3); #=> (0, 1, 2)
|
||
|
||
## You can create a lambda with `-> {}` ("pointy block") or `{}` ("block")
|
||
my &lambda = -> $argument { "The argument passed to this lambda is $argument" }
|
||
# `-> {}` and `{}` are pretty much the same thing, except that the former can
|
||
# take arguments, and that the latter can be mistaken as a hash by the parser.
|
||
|
||
# We can, for example, add 3 to each value of an array using map:
|
||
my @arrayplus3 = map({ $_ + 3 }, @array); # $_ is the implicit argument
|
||
|
||
# A sub (`sub {}`) has different semantics than a block (`{}` or `-> {}`):
|
||
# A block doesn't have a "function context" (though it can have arguments),
|
||
# which means that if you return from it,
|
||
# you're going to return from the parent function. Compare:
|
||
sub is-in(@array, $elem) {
|
||
# this will `return` out of the `is-in` sub
|
||
# once the condition evaluated to True, the loop won't be run anymore
|
||
map({ return True if $_ == $elem }, @array);
|
||
}
|
||
sub truthy-array(@array) {
|
||
# this will produce an array of `True` and `False`:
|
||
# (you can also say `anon sub` for "anonymous subroutine")
|
||
map(sub ($i) { if $i { return True } else { return False } }, @array);
|
||
# ^ the `return` only returns from the anonymous `sub`
|
||
}
|
||
|
||
# You can also use the "whatever star" to create an anonymous function
|
||
# (it'll stop at the furthest operator in the current expression)
|
||
my @arrayplus3 = map(*+3, @array); # `*+3` is the same as `{ $_ + 3 }`
|
||
my @arrayplus3 = map(*+*+3, @array); # Same as `-> $a, $b { $a + $b + 3 }`
|
||
# also `sub ($a, $b) { $a + $b + 3 }`
|
||
say (*/2)(4); #=> 2
|
||
# Immediatly execute the function Whatever created.
|
||
say ((*+3)/5)(5); #=> 1.6
|
||
# works even in parens !
|
||
|
||
# But if you need to have more than one argument (`$_`)
|
||
# in a block (without wanting to resort to `-> {}`),
|
||
# you can also use the implicit argument syntax, `$^` :
|
||
map({ $^a + $^b + 3 }, @array); # equivalent to following:
|
||
map(sub ($a, $b) { $a + $b + 3 }, @array); # (here with `sub`)
|
||
|
||
# Note : those are sorted lexicographically.
|
||
# `{ $^b / $^a }` is like `-> $a, $b { $b / $a }`
|
||
|
||
## About types...
|
||
# Perl6 is gradually typed. This means you can specify the type
|
||
# of your variables/arguments/return types, or you can omit them
|
||
# and they'll default to "Any".
|
||
# You obviously get access to a few base types, like Int and Str.
|
||
# The constructs for declaring types are "class", "role",
|
||
# which you'll see later.
|
||
|
||
# For now, let us examine "subset":
|
||
# a "subset" is a "sub-type" with additional checks.
|
||
# For example: "a very big integer is an Int that's greater than 500"
|
||
# You can specify the type you're subtyping (by default, Any),
|
||
# and add additional checks with the "where" keyword:
|
||
subset VeryBigInteger of Int where * > 500;
|
||
|
||
## Multiple Dispatch
|
||
# Perl 6 can decide which variant of a `sub` to call based on the type of the
|
||
# arguments, or on arbitrary preconditions, like with a type or a `where`:
|
||
|
||
# with types
|
||
multi sub sayit(Int $n) { # note the `multi` keyword here
|
||
say "Number: $n";
|
||
}
|
||
multi sayit(Str $s) { # a multi is a `sub` by default
|
||
say "String: $s";
|
||
}
|
||
sayit("foo"); # prints "String: foo"
|
||
sayit(True); # fails at *compile time* with
|
||
# "calling 'sayit' will never work with arguments of types ..."
|
||
|
||
# with arbitrary precondition (remember subsets?):
|
||
multi is-big(Int $n where * > 50) { "Yes !" } # using a closure
|
||
multi is-big(Int $ where 10..50) { "Quite." } # Using smart-matching
|
||
# (could use a regexp, etc)
|
||
multi is-big(Int $) { "No" }
|
||
|
||
subset Even of Int where * %% 2;
|
||
|
||
multi odd-or-even(Even) { "Even" } # The main case using the type.
|
||
# We don't name the argument.
|
||
multi odd-or-even($) { "Odd" } # "else"
|
||
|
||
# You can even dispatch based on a positional's argument presence !
|
||
multi with-or-without-you(:$with!) { # You need make it mandatory to
|
||
# be able to dispatch against it.
|
||
say "I can live ! Actually, I can't.";
|
||
}
|
||
multi with-or-without-you {
|
||
say "Definitely can't live.";
|
||
}
|
||
# This is very, very useful for many purposes, like `MAIN` subs (covered later),
|
||
# and even the language itself is using it in several places.
|
||
#
|
||
# - `is`, for example, is actually a `multi sub` named `trait_mod:<is>`,
|
||
# and it works off that.
|
||
# - `is rw`, is simply a dispatch to a function with this signature:
|
||
# sub trait_mod:<is>(Routine $r, :$rw!) {}
|
||
#
|
||
# (commented because running this would be a terrible idea !)
|
||
|
||
|
||
### Scoping
|
||
# In Perl 6, unlike many scripting languages, (such as Python, Ruby, PHP),
|
||
# you must declare your variables before using them. The `my` declarator
|
||
# you have learned uses "lexical scoping". There are a few other declarators,
|
||
# (`our`, `state`, ..., ) which we'll see later.
|
||
# This is called "lexical scoping", where in inner blocks,
|
||
# you can access variables from outer blocks.
|
||
my $file_scoped = 'Foo';
|
||
sub outer {
|
||
my $outer_scoped = 'Bar';
|
||
sub inner {
|
||
say "$file_scoped $outer_scoped";
|
||
}
|
||
&inner; # return the function
|
||
}
|
||
outer()(); #=> 'Foo Bar'
|
||
|
||
# As you can see, `$file_scoped` and `$outer_scoped` were captured.
|
||
# But if we were to try and use `$bar` outside of `foo`,
|
||
# the variable would be undefined (and you'd get a compile time error).
|
||
|
||
### Twigils
|
||
|
||
# There are many special `twigils` (composed sigil's) in Perl 6.
|
||
# Twigils define the variables' scope.
|
||
# The * and ? twigils work on standard variables:
|
||
# * Dynamic variable
|
||
# ? Compile-time variable
|
||
# The ! and the . twigils are used with Perl 6's objects:
|
||
# ! Attribute (class member)
|
||
# . Method (not really a variable)
|
||
|
||
# `*` Twigil: Dynamic Scope
|
||
# These variables use the`*` twigil to mark dynamically-scoped variables.
|
||
# Dynamically-scoped variables are looked up through the caller, not through
|
||
# the outer scope
|
||
|
||
my $*dyn_scoped_1 = 1;
|
||
my $*dyn_scoped_2 = 10;
|
||
|
||
sub say_dyn {
|
||
say "$*dyn_scoped_1 $*dyn_scoped_2";
|
||
}
|
||
|
||
sub call_say_dyn {
|
||
my $*dyn_scoped_1 = 25; # Defines $*dyn_scoped_1 only for this sub.
|
||
$*dyn_scoped_2 = 100; # Will change the value of the file scoped variable.
|
||
say_dyn(); #=> 25 100 $*dyn_scoped 1 and 2 will be looked for in the call.
|
||
# It uses he value of $*dyn_scoped_1 from inside this sub's lexical
|
||
# scope even though the blocks aren't nested (they're call-nested).
|
||
}
|
||
say_dyn(); #=> 1 10
|
||
call_say_dyn(); #=> 25 100
|
||
# Uses $*dyn_scoped_1 as defined in call_say_dyn even though
|
||
# we are calling it from outside.
|
||
say_dyn(); #=> 1 100 We changed the value of $*dyn_scoped_2 in call_say_dyn
|
||
# so now its value has changed.
|
||
|
||
### Object Model
|
||
|
||
# To call a method on an object, add a dot followed by the method name:
|
||
# => $object.method
|
||
# Classes are declared with the `class` keyword. Attributes are declared
|
||
# with the `has` keyword, and methods declared with `method`.
|
||
# Every attribute that is private uses the ! twigil for example: `$!attr`.
|
||
# Immutable public attributes use the `.` twigil.
|
||
# (you can make them mutable with `is rw`)
|
||
# The easiest way to remember the `$.` twigil is comparing it to how methods
|
||
# are called.
|
||
|
||
# Perl 6's object model ("SixModel") is very flexible,
|
||
# and allows you to dynamically add methods, change semantics, etc ...
|
||
# (these will not all be covered here, and you should refer to:
|
||
# https://docs.perl6.org/language/objects.html.
|
||
|
||
class Attrib-Class {
|
||
has $.attrib; # `$.attrib` is immutable.
|
||
# From inside the class, use `$!attrib` to modify it.
|
||
has $.other-attrib is rw; # You can mark a public attribute `rw`.
|
||
has Int $!private-attrib = 10;
|
||
|
||
method get-value {
|
||
$.attrib + $!private-attrib;
|
||
}
|
||
|
||
method set-value($param) { # Methods can take parameters
|
||
$!attrib = $param; # This works, because `$!` is always mutable.
|
||
# $.attrib = $param; # Wrong: You can't use the `$.` immutable version.
|
||
|
||
$.other-attrib = 5; # This works, because `$.other-attrib` is `rw`.
|
||
}
|
||
|
||
method !private-method {
|
||
say "This method is private to the class !";
|
||
}
|
||
};
|
||
|
||
# Create a new instance of Attrib-Class with $.attrib set to 5 :
|
||
# Note: you can't set private-attribute from here (more later on).
|
||
my $class-obj = Attrib-Class.new(attrib => 5);
|
||
say $class-obj.get-value; #=> 15
|
||
#$class-obj.attrib = 5; # This fails, because the `has $.attrib` is immutable
|
||
$class-obj.other-attrib = 10; # This, however, works, because the public
|
||
# attribute is mutable (`rw`).
|
||
|
||
## Object Inheritance
|
||
# Perl 6 also has inheritance (along with multiple inheritance)
|
||
# While `method`'s are inherited, `submethod`'s are not.
|
||
# Submethods are useful for object construction and destruction tasks,
|
||
# such as BUILD, or methods that must be overriden by subtypes.
|
||
# We will learn about BUILD later on.
|
||
|
||
class Parent {
|
||
has $.age;
|
||
has $.name;
|
||
# This submethod won't be inherited by Child.
|
||
submethod favorite-color {
|
||
say "My favorite color is Blue";
|
||
}
|
||
# This method is inherited
|
||
method talk { say "Hi, my name is $!name" }
|
||
}
|
||
# Inheritance uses the `is` keyword
|
||
class Child is Parent {
|
||
method talk { say "Goo goo ga ga" }
|
||
# This shadows Parent's `talk` method, This child hasn't learned to speak yet!
|
||
}
|
||
my Parent $Richard .= new(age => 40, name => 'Richard');
|
||
$Richard.favorite-color; #=> "My favorite color is Blue"
|
||
$Richard.talk; #=> "Hi, my name is Richard"
|
||
# # $Richard is able to access the submethod, he knows how to say his name.
|
||
|
||
my Child $Madison .= new(age => 1, name => 'Madison');
|
||
$Madison.talk; # prints "Goo goo ga ga" due to the overrided method.
|
||
# $Madison.favorite-color does not work since it is not inherited
|
||
|
||
# When you use `my T $var`, `$var` starts off with `T` itself in it,
|
||
# so you can call `new` on it.
|
||
# (`.=` is just the dot-call and the assignment operator:
|
||
# `$a .= b` is the same as `$a = $a.b`)
|
||
# Also note that `BUILD` (the method called inside `new`)
|
||
# will set parent properties too, so you can pass `val => 5`.
|
||
|
||
|
||
## Roles are supported too (also called Mixins in other languages)
|
||
role PrintableVal {
|
||
has $!counter = 0;
|
||
method print {
|
||
say $.val;
|
||
}
|
||
}
|
||
|
||
# you "import" a mixin (a "role") with "does":
|
||
class Item does PrintableVal {
|
||
has $.val;
|
||
|
||
# When `does`-ed, a `role` literally "mixes in" the class:
|
||
# the methods and attributes are put together, which means a class can access
|
||
# the private attributes/methods of its roles (but not the inverse !):
|
||
method access {
|
||
say $!counter++;
|
||
}
|
||
|
||
# However, this:
|
||
# method print {}
|
||
# is ONLY valid when `print` isn't a `multi` with the same dispatch.
|
||
# (this means a parent class can shadow a child class's `multi print() {}`,
|
||
# but it's an error if a role does)
|
||
|
||
# NOTE: You can use a role as a class (with `is ROLE`). In this case, methods
|
||
# will be shadowed, since the compiler will consider `ROLE` to be a class.
|
||
}
|
||
|
||
### Exceptions
|
||
# Exceptions are built on top of classes, in the package `X` (like `X::IO`).
|
||
# You can access the last exception with the special variable `$!`
|
||
# (use `$_` in a `CATCH` block) Note: This has no relation to $!variables.
|
||
|
||
# You can throw an exception using `die`:
|
||
open 'foo' or die 'Error!'; #=> Error!
|
||
# Or more explicitly:
|
||
die X::AdHoc.new(payload => 'Error!');
|
||
|
||
## Using `try` and `CATCH`
|
||
# By using `try` and `CATCH` you can contain and handle exceptions without
|
||
# disrupting the rest of the program.
|
||
# Unlike many other languages, in Perl 6, you put the `CATCH` block *within*
|
||
# the block to `try`. By default, a `try` has a `CATCH` block that catches
|
||
# any exception (`CATCH { default {} }`).
|
||
|
||
try { my $a = (0 %% 0); CATCH { say "Something happened: $_" } }
|
||
#=> Something happened: Attempt to divide by zero using infix:<%%>
|
||
|
||
# You can redefine it using `when`s (and `default`)
|
||
# to handle the exceptions you want:
|
||
try {
|
||
open 'foo';
|
||
CATCH { # In the `CATCH` block, the exception is set to $_
|
||
when X::AdHoc { say "Error: $_" }
|
||
#=>Error: Failed to open file /dir/foo: no such file or directory
|
||
|
||
# Any other exception will be re-raised, since we don't have a `default`
|
||
# Basically, if a `when` matches (or there's a `default`) marks the
|
||
# exception as
|
||
# "handled" so that it doesn't get re-thrown from the `CATCH`.
|
||
# You still can re-throw the exception (see below) by hand.
|
||
}
|
||
}
|
||
|
||
# There are also some subtleties to exceptions. Some Perl 6 subs return a
|
||
# `Failure`, which is a kind of "unthrown exception". They're not thrown until
|
||
# you tried to look at their content, unless you call `.Bool`/`.defined` on
|
||
# them - then they're handled.
|
||
# (the `.handled` method is `rw`, so you can mark it as `False` back yourself)
|
||
#
|
||
# You can throw a `Failure` using `fail`. Note that if the pragma `use fatal`
|
||
# is on, `fail` will throw an exception (like `die`).
|
||
fail "foo"; # We're not trying to access the value, so no problem.
|
||
try {
|
||
fail "foo";
|
||
CATCH {
|
||
default { say "It threw because we tried to get the fail's value!" }
|
||
}
|
||
}
|
||
|
||
# There is also another kind of exception: Control exceptions.
|
||
# Those are "good" exceptions, which happen when you change your program's flow,
|
||
# using operators like `return`, `next` or `last`.
|
||
# You can "catch" those with `CONTROL` (not 100% working in Rakudo yet).
|
||
|
||
### Packages
|
||
# Packages are a way to reuse code. Packages are like "namespaces", and any
|
||
# element of the six model (`module`, `role`, `class`, `grammar`, `subset`
|
||
# and `enum`) are actually packages. (Packages are the lowest common denominator)
|
||
# Packages are important - especially as Perl is well-known for CPAN,
|
||
# the Comprehensive Perl Archive Network.
|
||
|
||
# You can use a module (bring its declarations into scope) with `use`
|
||
use JSON::Tiny; # if you installed Rakudo* or Panda, you'll have this module
|
||
say from-json('[1]').perl; #=> [1]
|
||
|
||
# Declare your own packages like this:
|
||
# `class Package::Name::Here;` to declare a class, or if you only want to
|
||
# export variables/subs, you can use `module`. If you're coming from Perl 5
|
||
# please note you're not usually supposed to use the `package` keyword.
|
||
|
||
module Hello::World { # Bracketed form
|
||
# If `Hello` doesn't exist yet, it'll just be a "stub",
|
||
# that can be redeclared as something else later.
|
||
# ... declarations here ...
|
||
}
|
||
unit module Parse::Text; # file-scoped form
|
||
|
||
grammar Parse::Text::Grammar { # A grammar is a package, which you could `use`
|
||
}
|
||
|
||
# As said before, any part of the six model is also a package.
|
||
# Since `JSON::Tiny` uses (its own) `JSON::Tiny::Actions` class, you can use it:
|
||
my $actions = JSON::Tiny::Actions.new;
|
||
|
||
# We'll see how to export variables and subs in the next part:
|
||
|
||
### Declarators
|
||
# In Perl 6, you get different behaviors based on how you declare a variable.
|
||
# You've already seen `my` and `has`, we'll now explore the others.
|
||
|
||
## * `our` (happens at `INIT` time -- see "Phasers" below)
|
||
# It's like `my`, but it also creates a package variable.
|
||
# (All packagish things (`class`, `role`, etc) are `our` by default)
|
||
module Foo::Bar {
|
||
our $n = 1; # note: you can't put a type constraint on an `our` variable
|
||
our sub inc {
|
||
our sub available { # If you try to make inner `sub`s `our`...
|
||
# Better know what you're doing (Don't !).
|
||
say "Don't do that. Seriously. You'd get burned.";
|
||
}
|
||
my sub unavailable { # `my sub` is the default
|
||
say "Can't access me from outside, I'm my !";
|
||
}
|
||
say ++$n; # increment the package variable and output its value
|
||
}
|
||
}
|
||
say $Foo::Bar::n; #=> 1
|
||
Foo::Bar::inc; #=> 2
|
||
Foo::Bar::inc; #=> 3
|
||
|
||
## * `constant` (happens at `BEGIN` time)
|
||
# You can use the `constant` keyword to declare a compile-time variable/symbol:
|
||
constant Pi = 3.14;
|
||
constant $var = 1;
|
||
|
||
# And if you're wondering, yes, it can also contain infinite lists.
|
||
constant why-not = 5, 15 ... *;
|
||
say why-not[^5]; #=> 5 15 25 35 45
|
||
|
||
## * `state` (happens at run time, but only once)
|
||
# State variables are only initialized one time
|
||
# (they exist in other langages such as C as `static`)
|
||
sub fixed-rand {
|
||
state $val = rand;
|
||
say $val;
|
||
}
|
||
fixed-rand for ^10; # will print the same number 10 times
|
||
|
||
# Note, however, that they exist separately in different enclosing contexts.
|
||
# If you declare a function with a `state` within a loop, it'll re-create the
|
||
# variable for each iteration of the loop. See:
|
||
for ^5 -> $a {
|
||
sub foo {
|
||
state $val = rand; # This will be a different value for every value of `$a`
|
||
}
|
||
for ^5 -> $b {
|
||
say foo; # This will print the same value 5 times, but only 5.
|
||
# Next iteration will re-run `rand`.
|
||
}
|
||
}
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
### Phasers
|
||
# Phasers in Perl 6 are blocks that happen at determined points of time in your
|
||
# program. When the program is compiled, when a for loop runs, when you leave a
|
||
# block, when an exception gets thrown ... (`CATCH` is actually a phaser !)
|
||
# Some of them can be used for their return values, some of them can't
|
||
# (those that can have a "[*]" in the beginning of their explanation text).
|
||
# Let's have a look !
|
||
|
||
## * Compile-time phasers
|
||
BEGIN { say "[*] Runs at compile time, as soon as possible, only once" }
|
||
CHECK { say "[*] Runs at compile time, as late as possible, only once" }
|
||
|
||
## * Run-time phasers
|
||
INIT { say "[*] Runs at run time, as soon as possible, only once" }
|
||
END { say "Runs at run time, as late as possible, only once" }
|
||
|
||
## * Block phasers
|
||
ENTER { say "[*] Runs everytime you enter a block, repeats on loop blocks" }
|
||
LEAVE { say "Runs everytime you leave a block, even when an exception
|
||
happened. Repeats on loop blocks." }
|
||
|
||
PRE { say "Asserts a precondition at every block entry,
|
||
before ENTER (especially useful for loops)" }
|
||
# exemple:
|
||
for 0..2 {
|
||
PRE { $_ > 1 } # This is going to blow up with "Precondition failed"
|
||
}
|
||
|
||
POST { say "Asserts a postcondition at every block exit,
|
||
after LEAVE (especially useful for loops)" }
|
||
for 0..2 {
|
||
POST { $_ < 2 } # This is going to blow up with "Postcondition failed"
|
||
}
|
||
|
||
## * Block/exceptions phasers
|
||
sub {
|
||
KEEP { say "Runs when you exit a block successfully (without throwing an exception)" }
|
||
UNDO { say "Runs when you exit a block unsuccessfully (by throwing an exception)" }
|
||
}
|
||
|
||
## * Loop phasers
|
||
for ^5 {
|
||
FIRST { say "[*] The first time the loop is run, before ENTER" }
|
||
NEXT { say "At loop continuation time, before LEAVE" }
|
||
LAST { say "At loop termination time, after LEAVE" }
|
||
}
|
||
|
||
## * Role/class phasers
|
||
COMPOSE { "When a role is composed into a class. /!\ NOT YET IMPLEMENTED" }
|
||
|
||
# They allow for cute tricks or clever code ...:
|
||
say "This code took " ~ (time - CHECK time) ~ "s to compile";
|
||
|
||
# ... or clever organization:
|
||
sub do-db-stuff {
|
||
$db.start-transaction; # start a new transaction
|
||
KEEP $db.commit; # commit the transaction if all went well
|
||
UNDO $db.rollback; # or rollback if all hell broke loose
|
||
}
|
||
|
||
### Statement prefixes
|
||
# Those act a bit like phasers: they affect the behavior of the following code.
|
||
# Though, they run in-line with the executable code, so they're in lowercase.
|
||
# (`try` and `start` are theoretically in that list, but explained somewhere else)
|
||
# Note: all of these (except start) don't need explicit brackets `{` and `}`.
|
||
|
||
# - `do` (that you already saw) - runs a block or a statement as a term
|
||
# You can't normally use a statement as a value (or "term"):
|
||
#
|
||
# my $value = if True { 1 } # `if` is a statement - parse error
|
||
#
|
||
# This works:
|
||
my $a = do if True { 5 } # with `do`, `if` is now a term.
|
||
|
||
# - `once` - Makes sure a piece of code only runs once
|
||
for ^5 { once say 1 }; #=> 1
|
||
# Only prints ... once.
|
||
# Like `state`, they're cloned per-scope
|
||
for ^5 { sub { once say 1 }() } #=> 1 1 1 1 1
|
||
# Prints once per lexical scope
|
||
|
||
# - `gather` - Co-routine thread
|
||
# Gather allows you to `take` several values in an array,
|
||
# much like `do`, but allows you to take any expression.
|
||
say gather for ^5 {
|
||
take $_ * 3 - 1;
|
||
take $_ * 3 + 1;
|
||
} #=> -1 1 2 4 5 7 8 10 11 13
|
||
say join ',', gather if False {
|
||
take 1;
|
||
take 2;
|
||
take 3;
|
||
} # Doesn't print anything.
|
||
|
||
# - `eager` - Evaluate statement eagerly (forces eager context)
|
||
# Don't try this at home:
|
||
#
|
||
# eager 1..*; # this will probably hang for a while (and might crash ...).
|
||
#
|
||
# But consider:
|
||
constant thrice = gather for ^3 { say take $_ }; # Doesn't print anything
|
||
# versus:
|
||
constant thrice = eager gather for ^3 { say take $_ }; #=> 0 1 2
|
||
|
||
# - `lazy` - Defer actual evaluation until value is fetched (forces lazy context)
|
||
# Not yet implemented !!
|
||
|
||
# - `sink` - An `eager` that discards the results (forces sink context)
|
||
constant nilthingie = sink for ^3 { .say } #=> 0 1 2
|
||
say nilthingie.perl; #=> Nil
|
||
|
||
# - `quietly` - Supresses warnings
|
||
# Not yet implemented !
|
||
|
||
# - `contend` - Attempts side effects under STM
|
||
# Not yet implemented !
|
||
|
||
### More operators thingies !
|
||
|
||
## Everybody loves operators ! Let's get more of them
|
||
|
||
# The precedence list can be found here:
|
||
# http://perlcabal.org/syn/S03.html#Operator_precedence
|
||
# But first, we need a little explanation about associativity:
|
||
|
||
# * Binary operators:
|
||
$a ! $b ! $c; # with a left-associative `!`, this is `($a ! $b) ! $c`
|
||
$a ! $b ! $c; # with a right-associative `!`, this is `$a ! ($b ! $c)`
|
||
$a ! $b ! $c; # with a non-associative `!`, this is illegal
|
||
$a ! $b ! $c; # with a chain-associative `!`, this is `($a ! $b) and ($b ! $c)`
|
||
$a ! $b ! $c; # with a list-associative `!`, this is `infix:<>`
|
||
|
||
# * Unary operators:
|
||
!$a! # with left-associative `!`, this is `(!$a)!`
|
||
!$a! # with right-associative `!`, this is `!($a!)`
|
||
!$a! # with non-associative `!`, this is illegal
|
||
|
||
## Create your own operators !
|
||
# Okay, you've been reading all of that, so I guess I should try
|
||
# to show you something exciting.
|
||
# I'll tell you a little secret (or not-so-secret):
|
||
# In Perl 6, all operators are actually just funny-looking subroutines.
|
||
|
||
# You can declare an operator just like you declare a sub:
|
||
sub prefix:<win>($winner) { # refer to the operator categories
|
||
# (yes, it's the "words operator" `<>`)
|
||
say "$winner Won !";
|
||
}
|
||
win "The King"; #=> The King Won !
|
||
# (prefix is before)
|
||
|
||
# you can still call the sub with its "full name"
|
||
say prefix:<!>(True); #=> False
|
||
|
||
sub postfix:<!>(Int $n) {
|
||
[*] 2..$n; # using the reduce meta-operator ... See below ;-) !
|
||
}
|
||
say 5!; #=> 120
|
||
# Postfix operators (after) have to come *directly* after the term.
|
||
# No whitespace. You can use parentheses to disambiguate, i.e. `(5!)!`
|
||
|
||
|
||
sub infix:<times>(Int $n, Block $r) { # infix in the middle
|
||
for ^$n {
|
||
$r(); # You need the explicit parentheses to call the function in `$r`,
|
||
# else you'd be referring at the variable itself, like with `&r`.
|
||
}
|
||
}
|
||
3 times -> { say "hello" }; #=> hello
|
||
#=> hello
|
||
#=> hello
|
||
# You're very recommended to put spaces
|
||
# around your infix operator calls.
|
||
|
||
# For circumfix and post-circumfix ones
|
||
sub circumfix:<[ ]>(Int $n) {
|
||
$n ** $n
|
||
}
|
||
say [5]; #=> 3125
|
||
# circumfix is around. Again, no whitespace.
|
||
|
||
sub postcircumfix:<{ }>(Str $s, Int $idx) {
|
||
# post-circumfix is
|
||
# "after a term, around something"
|
||
$s.substr($idx, 1);
|
||
}
|
||
say "abc"{1}; #=> b
|
||
# after the term `"abc"`, and around the index (1)
|
||
|
||
# This really means a lot -- because everything in Perl 6 uses this.
|
||
# For example, to delete a key from a hash, you use the `:delete` adverb
|
||
# (a simple named argument underneath):
|
||
%h{$key}:delete;
|
||
# equivalent to:
|
||
postcircumfix:<{ }>(%h, $key, :delete); # (you can call operators like that)
|
||
# It's *all* using the same building blocks!
|
||
# Syntactic categories (prefix infix ...), named arguments (adverbs), ...,
|
||
# - used to build the language - are available to you.
|
||
|
||
# (you are, obviously, recommended against making an operator out of
|
||
# *everything* -- with great power comes great responsibility)
|
||
|
||
## Meta operators !
|
||
# Oh boy, get ready. Get ready, because we're delving deep
|
||
# into the rabbit's hole, and you probably won't want to go
|
||
# back to other languages after reading that.
|
||
# (I'm guessing you don't want to already at that point).
|
||
# Meta-operators, as their name suggests, are *composed* operators.
|
||
# Basically, they're operators that apply another operator.
|
||
|
||
## * Reduce meta-operator
|
||
# It's a prefix meta-operator that takes a binary function and
|
||
# one or many lists. If it doesn't get passed any argument,
|
||
# it either returns a "default value" for this operator
|
||
# (a meaningless value) or `Any` if there's none (examples below).
|
||
#
|
||
# Otherwise, it pops an element from the list(s) one at a time, and applies
|
||
# the binary function to the last result (or the list's first element)
|
||
# and the popped element.
|
||
#
|
||
# To sum a list, you could use the reduce meta-operator with `+`, i.e.:
|
||
say [+] 1, 2, 3; #=> 6
|
||
# equivalent to `(1+2)+3`
|
||
say [*] 1..5; #=> 120
|
||
# equivalent to `((((1*2)*3)*4)*5)`.
|
||
|
||
# You can reduce with any operator, not just with mathematical ones.
|
||
# For example, you could reduce with `//` to get
|
||
# the first defined element of a list:
|
||
say [//] Nil, Any, False, 1, 5; #=> False
|
||
# (Falsey, but still defined)
|
||
|
||
|
||
# Default value examples:
|
||
say [*] (); #=> 1
|
||
say [+] (); #=> 0
|
||
# meaningless values, since N*1=N and N+0=N.
|
||
say [//]; #=> (Any)
|
||
# There's no "default value" for `//`.
|
||
|
||
# You can also call it with a function you made up, using double brackets:
|
||
sub add($a, $b) { $a + $b }
|
||
say [[&add]] 1, 2, 3; #=> 6
|
||
|
||
## * Zip meta-operator
|
||
# This one is an infix meta-operator than also can be used as a "normal"
|
||
# operator. It takes an optional binary function (by default, it just creates
|
||
# a pair), and will pop one value off of each array and call its binary function
|
||
# on these until it runs out of elements. It returns an array with all of these
|
||
# new elements.
|
||
(1, 2) Z (3, 4); # ((1, 3), (2, 4)), since by default, the function makes an array
|
||
1..3 Z+ 4..6; # (5, 7, 9), using the custom infix:<+> function
|
||
|
||
# Since `Z` is list-associative (see the list above),
|
||
# you can use it on more than one list
|
||
(True, False) Z|| (False, False) Z|| (False, False); # (True, False)
|
||
|
||
# And, as it turns out, you can also use the reduce meta-operator with it:
|
||
[Z||] (True, False), (False, False), (False, False); # (True, False)
|
||
|
||
|
||
## And to end the operator list:
|
||
|
||
## * Sequence operator
|
||
# The sequence operator is one of Perl 6's most powerful features:
|
||
# it's composed of first, on the left, the list you want Perl 6 to deduce from
|
||
# (and might include a closure), and on the right, a value or the predicate
|
||
# that says when to stop (or Whatever for a lazy infinite list).
|
||
my @list = 1, 2, 3 ... 10; # basic deducing
|
||
#my @list = 1, 3, 6 ... 10; # this dies because Perl 6 can't figure out the end
|
||
my @list = 1, 2, 3 ...^ 10; # as with ranges, you can exclude the last element
|
||
# (the iteration when the predicate matches).
|
||
my @list = 1, 3, 9 ... * > 30; # you can use a predicate
|
||
# (with the Whatever Star, here).
|
||
my @list = 1, 3, 9 ... { $_ > 30 }; # (equivalent to the above)
|
||
|
||
my @fib = 1, 1, *+* ... *; # lazy infinite list of fibonacci series,
|
||
# computed using a closure!
|
||
my @fib = 1, 1, -> $a, $b { $a + $b } ... *; # (equivalent to the above)
|
||
my @fib = 1, 1, { $^a + $^b } ... *; #(... also equivalent to the above)
|
||
# $a and $b will always take the previous values, meaning here
|
||
# they'll start with $a = 1 and $b = 1 (values we set by hand).
|
||
# then $a = 1 and $b = 2 (result from previous $a+$b), and so on.
|
||
|
||
say @fib[^10]; #=> 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55
|
||
# (using a range as the index)
|
||
# Note : as for ranges, once reified, elements aren't re-calculated.
|
||
# That's why `@primes[^100]` will take a long time the first time you print
|
||
# it, then be instant.
|
||
|
||
### Regular Expressions
|
||
# I'm sure a lot of you have been waiting for this one.
|
||
# Well, now that you know a good deal of Perl 6 already, we can get started.
|
||
# First off, you'll have to forget about "PCRE regexps" (perl-compatible regexps).
|
||
#
|
||
# IMPORTANT: Don't skip them because you know PCRE. They're different.
|
||
# Some things are the same (like `?`, `+`, and `*`),
|
||
# but sometimes the semantics change (`|`).
|
||
# Make sure you read carefully, because you might trip over a new behavior.
|
||
#
|
||
# Perl 6 has many features related to RegExps. After all, Rakudo parses itself.
|
||
# We're first going to look at the syntax itself,
|
||
# then talk about grammars (PEG-like), differences between
|
||
# `token`, `regex` and `rule` declarators, and some more.
|
||
# Side note: you still have access to PCRE regexps using the `:P5` modifier.
|
||
# (we won't be discussing this in this tutorial, however)
|
||
#
|
||
# In essence, Perl 6 natively implements PEG ("Parsing Expression Grammars").
|
||
# The pecking order for ambiguous parses is determined by a multi-level
|
||
# tie-breaking test:
|
||
# - Longest token matching. `foo\s+` beats `foo` (by 2 or more positions)
|
||
# - Longest literal prefix. `food\w*` beats `foo\w*` (by 1)
|
||
# - Declaration from most-derived to less derived grammars
|
||
# (grammars are actually classes)
|
||
# - Earliest declaration wins
|
||
say so 'a' ~~ /a/; #=> True
|
||
say so 'a' ~~ / a /; # More readable with some spaces!
|
||
|
||
# In all our examples, we're going to use the smart-matching operator against
|
||
# a regexp. We're converting the result using `so`, but in fact, it's
|
||
# returning a `Match` object. They know how to respond to list indexing,
|
||
# hash indexing, and return the matched string.
|
||
# The results of the match are available as `$/` (implicitly lexically-scoped).
|
||
# You can also use the capture variables which start at 0:
|
||
# `$0`, `$1', `$2`...
|
||
#
|
||
# You can also note that `~~` does not perform start/end checking
|
||
# (meaning the regexp can be matched with just one char of the string),
|
||
# we're going to explain later how you can do it.
|
||
|
||
# In Perl 6, you can have any alphanumeric as a literal,
|
||
# everything else has to be escaped, using a backslash or quotes.
|
||
say so 'a|b' ~~ / a '|' b /; # `True`. Wouln't mean the same if `|` wasn't escaped
|
||
say so 'a|b' ~~ / a \| b /; # `True`. Another way to escape it.
|
||
|
||
# The whitespace in a regexp is actually not significant,
|
||
# unless you use the `:s` (`:sigspace`, significant space) modifier.
|
||
say so 'a b c' ~~ / a b c /; # `False`. Space is not significant here
|
||
say so 'a b c' ~~ /:s a b c /; # `True`. We added the modifier `:s` here.
|
||
|
||
# It is, however, important as for how modifiers (that you're gonna see just below)
|
||
# are applied ...
|
||
|
||
## Quantifying - `?`, `+`, `*` and `**`.
|
||
# - `?` - 0 or 1
|
||
so 'ac' ~~ / a b c /; # `False`
|
||
so 'ac' ~~ / a b? c /; # `True`, the "b" matched 0 times.
|
||
so 'abc' ~~ / a b? c /; # `True`, the "b" matched 1 time.
|
||
|
||
# ... As you read just before, whitespace is important because it determines
|
||
# which part of the regexp is the target of the modifier:
|
||
so 'def' ~~ / a b c? /; # `False`. Only the `c` is optional
|
||
so 'def' ~~ / ab?c /; # `False`. Whitespace is not significant
|
||
so 'def' ~~ / 'abc'? /; # `True`. The whole "abc" group is optional.
|
||
|
||
# Here (and below) the quantifier applies only to the `b`
|
||
|
||
# - `+` - 1 or more
|
||
so 'ac' ~~ / a b+ c /; # `False`; `+` wants at least one matching
|
||
so 'abc' ~~ / a b+ c /; # `True`; one is enough
|
||
so 'abbbbc' ~~ / a b+ c /; # `True`, matched 4 "b"s
|
||
|
||
# - `*` - 0 or more
|
||
so 'ac' ~~ / a b* c /; # `True`, they're all optional.
|
||
so 'abc' ~~ / a b* c /; # `True`
|
||
so 'abbbbc' ~~ / a b* c /; # `True`
|
||
so 'aec' ~~ / a b* c /; # `False`. "b"(s) are optional, not replaceable.
|
||
|
||
# - `**` - (Unbound) Quantifier
|
||
# If you squint hard enough, you might understand
|
||
# why exponentation is used for quantity.
|
||
so 'abc' ~~ / a b ** 1 c /; # `True` (exactly one time)
|
||
so 'abc' ~~ / a b ** 1..3 c /; # `True` (one to three times)
|
||
so 'abbbc' ~~ / a b ** 1..3 c /; # `True`
|
||
so 'abbbbbbc' ~~ / a b ** 1..3 c /; # `False` (too much)
|
||
so 'abbbbbbc' ~~ / a b ** 3..* c /; # `True` (infinite ranges are okay)
|
||
|
||
# - `<[]>` - Character classes
|
||
# Character classes are the equivalent of PCRE's `[]` classes, but
|
||
# they use a more perl6-ish syntax:
|
||
say 'fooa' ~~ / f <[ o a ]>+ /; #=> 'fooa'
|
||
# You can use ranges:
|
||
say 'aeiou' ~~ / a <[ e..w ]> /; #=> 'ae'
|
||
# Just like in normal regexes, if you want to use a special character, escape it
|
||
# (the last one is escaping a space)
|
||
say 'he-he !' ~~ / 'he-' <[ a..z \! \ ]> + /; #=> 'he-he !'
|
||
# You'll get a warning if you put duplicate names
|
||
# (which has the nice effect of catching the wrote quoting:)
|
||
'he he' ~~ / <[ h e ' ' ]> /; # Warns "Repeated characters found in characters class"
|
||
|
||
# You can also negate them ... (equivalent to `[^]` in PCRE)
|
||
so 'foo' ~~ / <-[ f o ]> + /; # False
|
||
|
||
# ... and compose them: :
|
||
so 'foo' ~~ / <[ a..z ] - [ f o ]> + /; # False (any letter except f and o)
|
||
so 'foo' ~~ / <-[ a..z ] + [ f o ]> + /; # True (no letter except f and o)
|
||
so 'foo!' ~~ / <-[ a..z ] + [ f o ]> + /; # True (the + doesn't replace the left part)
|
||
|
||
## Grouping and capturing
|
||
# Group: you can group parts of your regexp with `[]`.
|
||
# These groups are *not* captured (like PCRE's `(?:)`).
|
||
so 'abc' ~~ / a [ b ] c /; # `True`. The grouping does pretty much nothing
|
||
so 'foo012012bar' ~~ / foo [ '01' <[0..9]> ] + bar /;
|
||
# The previous line returns `True`.
|
||
# We match the "012" 1 or more time (the `+` was applied to the group).
|
||
|
||
# But this does not go far enough, because we can't actually get back what
|
||
# we matched.
|
||
# Capture: We can actually *capture* the results of the regexp, using parentheses.
|
||
so 'fooABCABCbar' ~~ / foo ( 'A' <[A..Z]> 'C' ) + bar /; # `True`. (using `so` here, `$/` below)
|
||
|
||
# So, starting with the grouping explanations.
|
||
# As we said before, our `Match` object is available as `$/`:
|
||
say $/; # Will print some weird stuff (we'll explain) (or "Nil" if nothing matched).
|
||
|
||
# As we also said before, it has array indexing:
|
||
say $/[0]; #=> ｢ABC｣ ｢ABC｣
|
||
# These weird brackets are `Match` objects.
|
||
# Here, we have an array of these.
|
||
say $0; # The same as above.
|
||
|
||
# Our capture is `$0` because it's the first and only one capture in the regexp.
|
||
# You might be wondering why it's an array, and the answer is simple:
|
||
# Some capture (indexed using `$0`, `$/[0]` or a named one) will be an array
|
||
# IFF it can have more than one element
|
||
# (so, with `*`, `+` and `**` (whatever the operands), but not with `?`).
|
||
# Let's use examples to see that:
|
||
so 'fooABCbar' ~~ / foo ( A B C )? bar /; # `True`
|
||
say $/[0]; #=> ｢ABC｣
|
||
say $0.WHAT; #=> (Match)
|
||
# It can't be more than one, so it's only a single match object.
|
||
so 'foobar' ~~ / foo ( A B C )? bar /; #=> True
|
||
say $0.WHAT; #=> (Any)
|
||
# This capture did not match, so it's empty
|
||
so 'foobar' ~~ / foo ( A B C ) ** 0..1 bar /; # `True`
|
||
say $0.WHAT; #=> (Array)
|
||
# A specific quantifier will always capture an Array,
|
||
# may it be a range or a specific value (even 1).
|
||
|
||
# The captures are indexed per nesting. This means a group in a group will be nested
|
||
# under its parent group: `$/[0][0]`, for this code:
|
||
'hello-~-world' ~~ / ( 'hello' ( <[ \- \~ ]> + ) ) 'world' /;
|
||
say $/[0].Str; #=> hello~
|
||
say $/[0][0].Str; #=> ~
|
||
|
||
# This stems from a very simple fact: `$/` does not contain strings, integers or arrays,
|
||
# it only contains match objects. These contain the `.list`, `.hash` and `.Str` methods.
|
||
# (but you can also just use `match<key>` for hash access
|
||
# and `match[idx]` for array access)
|
||
say $/[0].list.perl; #=> (Match.new(...),).list
|
||
# We can see it's a list of Match objects. Those contain
|
||
# a bunch of infos: where the match started/ended,
|
||
# the "ast" (see actions later), etc.
|
||
# You'll see named capture below with grammars.
|
||
|
||
## Alternatives - the `or` of regexps
|
||
# WARNING: They are DIFFERENT from PCRE regexps.
|
||
so 'abc' ~~ / a [ b | y ] c /; # `True`. Either "b" or "y".
|
||
so 'ayc' ~~ / a [ b | y ] c /; # `True`. Obviously enough ...
|
||
|
||
# The difference between this `|` and the one you're used to is LTM.
|
||
# LTM means "Longest Token Matching". This means that the engine will always
|
||
# try to match as much as possible in the strng
|
||
'foo' ~~ / fo | foo /; # `foo`, because it's longer.
|
||
# To decide which part is the "longest", it first splits the regex in two parts:
|
||
# The "declarative prefix" (the part that can be statically analyzed)
|
||
# and the procedural parts.
|
||
# Declarative prefixes include alternations (`|`), conjuctions (`&`),
|
||
# sub-rule calls (not yet introduced), literals, characters classes and quantifiers.
|
||
# The latter include everything else: back-references, code assertions,
|
||
# and other things that can't traditionnaly be represented by normal regexps.
|
||
#
|
||
# Then, all the alternatives are tried at once, and the longest wins.
|
||
# Exemples:
|
||
# DECLARATIVE | PROCEDURAL
|
||
/ 'foo' \d+ [ <subrule1> || <subrule2> ] /;
|
||
# DECLARATIVE (nested groups are not a problem)
|
||
/ \s* [ \w & b ] [ c | d ] /;
|
||
# However, closures and recursion (of named regexps) are procedural.
|
||
# ... There are also more complicated rules, like specificity
|
||
# (literals win over character classes)
|
||
|
||
# Note: the first-matching `or` still exists, but is now spelled `||`
|
||
'foo' ~~ / fo || foo /; # `fo` now.
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
### Extra: the MAIN subroutine
|
||
# The `MAIN` subroutine is called when you run a Perl 6 file directly.
|
||
# It's very powerful, because Perl 6 actually parses the arguments
|
||
# and pass them as such to the sub. It also handles named argument (`--foo`)
|
||
# and will even go as far as to autogenerate a `--help`
|
||
sub MAIN($name) { say "Hello, $name !" }
|
||
# This produces:
|
||
# $ perl6 cli.pl
|
||
# Usage:
|
||
# t.pl <name>
|
||
|
||
# And since it's a regular Perl 6 sub, you can haz multi-dispatch:
|
||
# (using a "Bool" for the named argument so that we can do `--replace`
|
||
# instead of `--replace=1`)
|
||
subset File of Str where *.IO.d; # convert to IO object to check the file exists
|
||
|
||
multi MAIN('add', $key, $value, Bool :$replace) { ... }
|
||
multi MAIN('remove', $key) { ... }
|
||
multi MAIN('import', File, Str :$as) { ... } # omitting parameter name
|
||
# This produces:
|
||
# $ perl6 cli.pl
|
||
# Usage:
|
||
# t.pl [--replace] add <key> <value>
|
||
# t.pl remove <key>
|
||
# t.pl [--as=<Str>] import (File)
|
||
# As you can see, this is *very* powerful.
|
||
# It even went as far as to show inline the constants.
|
||
# (the type is only displayed if the argument is `$`/is named)
|
||
|
||
###
|
||
### APPENDIX A:
|
||
###
|
||
### List of things
|
||
###
|
||
|
||
# It's considered by now you know the Perl6 basics.
|
||
# This section is just here to list some common operations,
|
||
# but which are not in the "main part" of the tutorial to bloat it up
|
||
|
||
## Operators
|
||
|
||
|
||
## * Sort comparison
|
||
# They return one value of the `Order` enum : `Less`, `Same` and `More`
|
||
# (which numerify to -1, 0 or +1).
|
||
1 <=> 4; # sort comparison for numerics
|
||
'a' leg 'b'; # sort comparison for string
|
||
$obj eqv $obj2; # sort comparison using eqv semantics
|
||
|
||
## * Generic ordering
|
||
3 before 4; # True
|
||
'b' after 'a'; # True
|
||
|
||
## * Short-circuit default operator
|
||
# Like `or` and `||`, but instead returns the first *defined* value :
|
||
say Any // Nil // 0 // 5; #=> 0
|
||
|
||
## * Short-circuit exclusive or (XOR)
|
||
# Returns `True` if one (and only one) of its arguments is true
|
||
say True ^^ False; #=> True
|
||
## * Flip Flop
|
||
# The flip flop operators (`ff` and `fff`, equivalent to P5's `..`/`...`).
|
||
# are operators that take two predicates to test:
|
||
# They are `False` until their left side returns `True`, then are `True` until
|
||
# their right side returns `True`.
|
||
# Like for ranges, you can exclude the iteration when it became `True`/`False`
|
||
# by using `^` on either side.
|
||
# Let's start with an example :
|
||
for <well met young hero we shall meet later> {
|
||
# by default, `ff`/`fff` smart-match (`~~`) against `$_`:
|
||
if 'met' ^ff 'meet' { # Won't enter the if for "met"
|
||
# (explained in details below).
|
||
.say
|
||
}
|
||
|
||
if rand == 0 ff rand == 1 { # compare variables other than `$_`
|
||
say "This ... probably will never run ...";
|
||
}
|
||
}
|
||
# This will print "young hero we shall meet" (excluding "met"):
|
||
# the flip-flop will start returning `True` when it first encounters "met"
|
||
# (but will still return `False` for "met" itself, due to the leading `^`
|
||
# on `ff`), until it sees "meet", which is when it'll start returning `False`.
|
||
|
||
# The difference between `ff` (awk-style) and `fff` (sed-style) is that
|
||
# `ff` will test its right side right when its left side changes to `True`,
|
||
# and can get back to `False` right away
|
||
# (*except* it'll be `True` for the iteration that matched) -
|
||
# While `fff` will wait for the next iteration to
|
||
# try its right side, once its left side changed:
|
||
.say if 'B' ff 'B' for <A B C B A>; #=> B B
|
||
# because the right-hand-side was tested
|
||
# directly (and returned `True`).
|
||
# "B"s are printed since it matched that time
|
||
# (it just went back to `False` right away).
|
||
.say if 'B' fff 'B' for <A B C B A>; #=> B C B
|
||
# The right-hand-side wasn't tested until
|
||
# `$_` became "C"
|
||
# (and thus did not match instantly).
|
||
|
||
# A flip-flop can change state as many times as needed:
|
||
for <test start print it stop not printing start print again stop not anymore> {
|
||
.say if $_ eq 'start' ^ff^ $_ eq 'stop'; # exclude both "start" and "stop",
|
||
#=> "print it print again"
|
||
}
|
||
|
||
# you might also use a Whatever Star,
|
||
# which is equivalent to `True` for the left side or `False` for the right:
|
||
for (1, 3, 60, 3, 40, 60) { # Note: the parenthesis are superfluous here
|
||
# (sometimes called "superstitious parentheses")
|
||
.say if $_ > 50 ff *; # Once the flip-flop reaches a number greater than 50,
|
||
# it'll never go back to `False`
|
||
#=> 60 3 40 60
|
||
}
|
||
|
||
# You can also use this property to create an `If`
|
||
# that'll not go through the first time :
|
||
for <a b c> {
|
||
.say if * ^ff *; # the flip-flop is `True` and never goes back to `False`,
|
||
# but the `^` makes it *not run* on the first iteration
|
||
#=> b c
|
||
}
|
||
|
||
|
||
# - `===` is value identity and uses `.WHICH` on the objects to compare them
|
||
# - `=:=` is container identity and uses `VAR()` on the objects to compare them
|
||
|
||
```
|
||
|
||
If you want to go further, you can:
|
||
|
||
- Read the [Perl 6 Advent Calendar](http://perl6advent.wordpress.com/). This is probably the greatest source of Perl 6 information, snippets and such.
|
||
- Come along on `#perl6` at `irc.freenode.net`. The folks here are always helpful.
|
||
- Check the [source of Perl 6's functions and classes](https://github.com/rakudo/rakudo/tree/nom/src/core). Rakudo is mainly written in Perl 6 (with a lot of NQP, "Not Quite Perl", a Perl 6 subset easier to implement and optimize).
|
||
- Read [the language design documents](http://design.perl6.org). They explain P6 from an implementor point-of-view, but it's still very interesting.
|