category-theory-illustrated/_chapters/05_logic.md

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Logic

Now let's talk about one more seemingly unrelated structure, just so we can "surprise" ourselves that it is a category (actually, there will be another surprise at the end of the chapter in addition to logic being a category, so don't fall asleep). Also, this time I will not merely transport you to a different branch of mathematics, but an entirely different discipline, namely logic.

This discipline may seem to you as detached from what we have been talking about as it possibly can, but it is actually very close.

What is logic

Logic is the science of the possible. As such, it is at the root of all other sciences, all of which are sciences of the actual, i.e. of that which really exists. For example, if the laws of physics show how particles behave in our universe (or multiverse), we might use logic to deduce how would they behave in any universe that is possible to exist (under a given set of postulates, whether real or made up). The key is that everything that is actual is also possible, and so all sciences are (or should be) be based on logic. But at the same time (and that's sometimes overlooked) nothing real is purely logical.

Proofs

Logic aims to study the rules by which knowing one thing leads you to conclude or (prove) that some other thing is also true, regardless of the things's domain (e.g. scientific discipline) i.e. by only referring to it's form.

On top of that, it (logic) tries to organize those rules in what are called logical systems (or formal systems as they are also called) - these are minimalistic collections of rules for manipulating proposition that have give you the maximum expressive ability.

What does "prove" mean in this context? Simple - when we are able, using the rules of a given logical system, to transform one set of propositions (AKA "things we know") A to another set of proposition B (AKA things that we want to know) we say that we have proven that A → B in that system that we are using.

Note that the word "prove" is a little misleading here, especially when used with the combination of the word true (which is misleading even by itself) as you don't prove anything using logic, you merely verify that it follows from a given set of propositions AND rules for manipulating those propositions (logical system). We use that word (prove) because verifying that something follows from a set of axioms and rules is the closest that we have to an actual proof.

Logic and mathematics

All of the concepts that we studied here are formal concepts, so we can say that we have been doing logic throughout this book. And we would be quite correct - every mathematical theory is logic plus some additional definitions added to it. For example, part of the reason why set theory is so popular as a theory for the foundations of mathematics is that set theory adds just a single primitive to the standard axioms of logic which we will see shortly - the binary relation that indicates set membership. So set theory is very close to logic. Exactly how they relate is probably outside the scope of that book. Category theory is close to logic too, but in a quite different way (this is not outside our scope, so we will examine the connection later.)

The elements of logic

Primary propositions

A consequence of the above (logic being the science of the possible) is that in order to do anything at all in it, we should have an initial set of propositions (or "values" as Russell calls them) that we accept as true, or false. These are also called "premises", "primary propositions" or "atomic propositions" as Wittgenstein dubbed them.

In the real-world usages, these propositions would be facts about the world, in most cases scientific facts. When in the context of logic itself, which as we said is the science of the possible, these propositions are abstracted away (i.e. we are not concerned about them directly) and so they can be represented with the colorful balls that you are familiar with.

Composing propositions

If we have two or more propositions that are somehow related to one another, we can combine them into one using a logical operator, like "and", "or" "follows" etc. The result would be a new proposition, not unlike the way in which monoid objects are combined into a new monoid object using the monoid operation.

Actually, some logical operations do form monoids, like the operation and with the proposition true serving as the identity element.

However, unlike group theory, logic has not one but many logical operations and studies the ways in which they relate, for example, in logic we might be interested in the law of distributivity of the and and or operations and what it entails.

Important to note that ∧ is the symbol for and and ∨ is the symbol for or (although the law above is actually valid even if and and or are flipped).

The equivalence of primary and composite propositions

Do note that in the leftmost proposition, the green ball is wrapped in a gray ball just to make the diagram prettier - propositions that are composed of several premises (symbolized by gray balls, containing some other balls) are not in any way different from "primary" propositions (single-color balls).

As a result of this is that we can compose propositions with multiple levels of nesting (recursively as the computer science people say).

Modus ponens

As an example of a proposition that contains multiple levels of nesting (and a great introduction of the subject in its own right), consider one of the oldest (it was alredy known by Stoics at 3rd century B.C.) and most famous propositions ever, namely modus ponens.

Modus ponens is a proposition that states that if A is true and if also A → B is true (if A implies B), then B is true as well. For example, if we know that "Socrates is a human" and that "Being human implies being mortal", we also know that "Socrates is mortal".

Let's dive a little deeper. The proposition is composed of two other propositions in a follows relation where the proposition that follows (B) is primary (or at least could be, again, pretty diagrams before all), but the proposition from which B follows is not. Let's call that one C - so the whole proposition becomes C → B.

Going one more level down, we notice that the C propositions is itself composed of two propositions in an and, relationship - A and let's call the other one D (so A ∧ D), where D is itself composed of two propositions, this time in a follows relationship - A → B.

Tautologies

Because the content of our propositions is abstracted away, we often cannot tell whether a given proposition is true or false. However, with propositions such as modus ponens we can: modus ponens is always true, regardless of whether the propositions which form it are true. If we want to be fancy, we can also say that it is true in all models of the system (a model being a set of real-world premises are taken to be signified by our propositions). For example, our previous example would not stop being true if we substitute "Socrates" with any other name, nor if we substitute "mortal" for any other quality that humans possess.

Propositions that are always true are called tautologies. And their more-famous false counterparts are the contradictions (you can turn each tautology into contradiction by adding a "not").

The simplest tautology, is the one which states that a proposition implies itself (e.g. "All bachelors are unmarried"). It may remind you of something.

Here are some more complex (less boring) tautologies (the symbol ¬ means "not"/negation.

We will learn how to determine which propositions are a tautologies, but first let's see why is this important at all i.e. what are tautologies good for.

Logical systems

Tautologies are useful because they are the basis of axiom schemas or rules of inference (which is almost the same thing): they can serve as starting point from which we can generate other true logical statements by means of substitution. And axiom schemas/rules of inference form logical systems, but let's not get ahead of ourselves.

Axiom schemas

Realizing that the colors of the balls in modus ponens are superficial, we may want to represent the general structure that all of its variations have.

This structure (the one that looks like a coloring book in our example) is called axiom schema. And the propositions that are produced by it are axioms.

Note that the propositions that we plug into the schema don't have to be primary. For example, having the proposition a (that is symbolized below by the orange ball) and the proposition stating that a implies a or b (which is one of the tautologies that we saw above), we can plug those propositions into the modus ponens and realize that a or b is true.

Rules of inference

Most axiom schemas can be easily applied as rules of inference i.e. as procedures for declaring propositions that follow from true propositions as also true e.g. in the case above, we can use modus ponens as a rule of inference to proves that a or b is true.

Completeness of logical systems

OK, we started talking about logical systems again, so let's explain what they are: Knowing that we can use axiom schemas/rules of inference to generate new propositions, we might ask whether it is possible to have a small collection of such schemas/rules that is curated in such a way that it enables us to generating all other tautologies. You would be happy (although a little annoyed, I imagine) to learn that there exist not only one, many such collections. And yes, collections such as the one above are what we call logical systems.

For example, a complete logical system is the collection of the following five axiom schemes in addition to the inference rule modus ponens (These are axiom schemes, even though we use colors).

Technically they should be called complete logical systems and a collections that are not capable of generating all other propositions would be incomplete logical systems, but who has time for incomplete logical systems?

Proving that this and other similar logical systems are complete is due to Godel and is known as "Godel's completeness theorem".

Classical logic

We now have an idea about how do some of the main logical constructs (axioms, rules of inference) work. But in order to prove that they are really true, and to understand what they are, we need to go deeper. And thus we are reaching the level of depth that is in the realm of philosophy.

Beyond the world that we inhabit and perceive every day there exist the world of forms where all ideas and concepts that manifest themselves in the objects that we perceive reside e.g. beyond all the people that have ever lived, there lies the prototypical person, and we are people only insofar as we resemble that person, beyond all the things in the world that are strong, lies the ultimate concepts of strength, from which all of them borrow etc. And although, as mere mortals, we live in the world of appearances and cannot perceive the world of forms, we can, through philosophy, "recollect" with it and know some of its features.

The above is my summary of a worldview that is due to the Greek philosopher Plato and is sometimes called Plato's "theory of forms". Originally, the discipline of logic represents an effort to think and structure our thoughts in a way that they apply to this world of forms i.e. in a "formal" way. Today, this original paradigm of logic is known as "classical logic". Although, it all started with Plato, most of it is due to the 20th century mathematician David Hilbert.

Truth-functional interpretation

The existence of the world of forms implies that even if there are many things that we, people, don't know, at least somewhere out there there exists answer to every question i.e. that ultimately each proposition is either true or false (this is known as the principle of bivalence). Due to it, propositions in classical logic can be aptly expressed as functions which output boolean values.

We can view primary propositions as simple functions that return a boolean value and don't take any arguments.

We can view logical operators as functions that take a bunch of boolean values and return another boolean value.

Composite propositions are, in this case, just the results of the invocation of these functions.

The negation operation

Let's begin with the negation operation. Negation is a unary operation, which means that it is a function that takes just one argument.

The same function can also be expressed in a slightly less-fancy way by this table.

p	¬p
True	True
False	False

Such tables are called truth tables and they are ubiquitous in classical logic, not only for defining operators, but for proving results as well.

Interlude: Proving results by truth tables

Having defined the negation operator, as we did above, we are in position to prove the first of the axioms of the logical system we saw, namely the double negation elimination. In natural language, this axiom is equivalent to the observation that saying "I am not unable to do X" is the same as saying "I am able to do it".

If we view logical operators as functions, from and to the set of boolean values, than proving axioms involves composing several of those functions into one function and observing its outputs. More specifically, the proof of the formula above involves just composing the negation function with itself and verifying that it leaves us in the same place from which we started.

If we want to be formal about it, we might say that applying negation two times is equivalent to the identity function.

If we are tired of diagrams, we can represent the composition diagram above as table. This kinds of tables are called truth-tables and they are the usual more of representation used. Each proposition in classical logic can be proved by means of truth tables alone.

p	¬p	¬¬p
True	False	True
False	True	False

Despite its triviality, the double negation axiom is probably the most controversial result in logic, we will see why later.

The and and or operations

OK, you know what and means and I know what it means, but what about those annoying people that want everything to be formally specified (nudge, nudge). Well we already know how we can satisfy them: we just show them this truth-table (in which ∧ is the symbol for and.)

p	q	p ∧ q
True	True	True
True	False	False
False	True	False
False	False	False

We can do the same for or.

p	q	p ∨ q
True	True	True
True	False	True
False	True	True
False	False	False

And we can use as axioms a pair of pretty obvious propositions that we can prove with just looking at the definition of the operations.

• For and: p ∧ q → p and p ∧ q → q "If I am tired and hungry, this means that I am hungry".
• For or: p → p ∨ q and p → p ∨ q "If I have a pen this means that I am either have a pen or a ruler".

The implies operation

Let's now look into something less trivial: the "implies" operation, (also known as "entailment"). This operation binds two propositions in a way that the truth of the first one implies the truth of the second one. You can read p → q as "if p is true, then q must also be true. The entailment is a binary one, it is represented by a function from an ordered pair of boolean values, to a boolean value.

Here is the truth table.

p	q	p → q
True	True	True
True	False	False
False	True	True
False	False	True

Now there are some aspects of this which are non obvious so let's go through every case.

1. If p is true and q is also true, then p does imply q - obviously.
2. If p is true but q is false then q does not follow from p, cause it would have been true if it did.
3. If p is false but q is true, then p still does imply q. What the hell? Consider two factors:
   • By saying that p implies q we don't say that the two are 100% interdependent e.g. the claim that "drinking causes headache" does not mean that drinking is the only source of headaches, and it won't be refuted the fact that you can get headache without drinking.
   • The conclusion that p implies q is reached only if all four cases are satisfied, so this events means nothing by itself.
4. And finally if p is false but q is false too, then p still does imply q (just some other day).

It might help you to remember that p → q (p implies q) is true when -p ∨ q (either p is false or q is true.) Because the arguments that truth functions take have just two possible values (true and false).

p	q	p → q	¬p	q	¬p ∨ q
True	True	True	False	True	True
True	False	False	False	False	False
False	True	True	True	True	True
False	False	True	True	False	True

Proving results by axioms/rules of inference

Here is a way to derive the above result using axioms and rules of inference.

p ∨ -p ( a ∨ -a)

q ∨ -p (p → q)

(-p ∨ q) ∨ -p ( a → a ∨ b)

(-p ∨ q) ∨ (-p ∨ q) ( a → a ∨ b)

-p ∨ q (a ∨ a → a)

Intuinistic logic

In the 20th century some people tried to really put the postulates of classical logic and set theory to the test by trying to base all mathematics on them. Doing so exposed some issues with classical logic, such as Godel's incompleteness theorem, which lead some of them to the conclusion that logic deals just with subjective ideas that exist only in our minds. This lead to the development of a new kind of logic, known as intuinistic logic.

If classical logic is based on Plato's theory of forms, then intuinism began with a philosophical idea originating from Kant and Schopenhauer: the idea that the world as we experience it is largely predetermined of out perceptions of it. Or in the words of the mathematician who founded this school, L.E.J. Brouwer:

[...] logic is life in the human brain; it may accompany life outside the brain but it can never guide it by virtue of its own power.

But if logic deals with constructing rather than discovering then we have no basis to claim that each statements is necessarily either true or false. For example, there might be a statements that might not be provable (the twin-prime conjecture is often given as an example), simply because they fall outside of the domain of the system that we are working with, but that does not make them false. This wouldn't be such a big deal if the fact that each statement is either true or false weren't the basis of truth-tables, which is how all logical operators are defined.

The BHK Interpretation

So, due to the reasons outlined above, intuinistic logic is not bivalent, we cannot have all propositions reduced to a value of the boolean set (to true and false).

But one thing that we still do have propositions that are "true" in the sense that a proof for them is given - the primary propositions.

So with some caveats (which we will see later) the bivalence of the existence or non-existence of a proof for a given proposition may be taken as similar to the proposition being true or false - there either is a proof of a given proposition or there isn't.

This is known as the as the Brouwer–Heyting–Kolmogorov (BHK) interpretations of intuinistic logic.

The original formulation of the BHK interpretation does not depend on any particular mathematical theory, but here we chose to illustrate it using the language of set theory.

The and and or operations

If the existence of a proof of a proposition is taken to mean that the proposition is true, then the definitions of and is rather simple - the proof of A ∧ B is just a pair containing a proof of A, and a proof of B e.g. a set-theoretic product of the two (see chapter 2). The principle is similar - if you can construct the pair of A and B i.e. if both proofs do exists, then A ∧ B is provable too.

Question: what would be the or operation in this case?

The implies operation

In this case, saying that A implies B (A → B) would just mean that there exist a function which can convert a proof of A to a proof of B.

And the modus ponens rule of inference is just the fact that if we have a proof of A we can call this function (A → B) to obtain a proof of B.

Note that in order for this to work, we we need to define the function itself in terms of sets i.e. we need to have a set representing A → B for each A and B. This is possible (using the concept of a pair) but we won't do it now.

The negation operation

So according to BHK interpretation saying that A is true, means that that we possess a proof of A - simple enough. But it's a bit harder to express the fact that A is false: it is not enough to say that we don't have a proof of A (the fact that don't have it, doesn't mean it doesn't exist). Instead, we must show that claiming that it is true leads to contradiction.

To express this, intuinistic logic defines the constant "false" (⊥) defined as the proof of a formula that does not have any proofs (also known as "absurdity" or "bottom value"). And this allows for us to label false propositions as ones that imply the bottom value. So in intuinistic logic ¬A as just a shorthand for A → ⊥. In set theory, this constant can be expressed by the empty set.

And the observation that false propositions are connected to the bottom value is expressed by the fact that if a proposition is true, i.e. there exists a proof of it, there can be no function from it to the empty set.

The only way for there to be such function is if the set of proof of the proposition is empty as well.

Task: Look up the definition of function and verify that there cannot exist a function from any set to the empty set

Task Look up the definition of function and verify that there does exist a function from the empty set to itself (in fact there exist a function from the empty set to any other set.

Classical VS Intuinistic logic

Although intuinistic logic seems to differ a lot from classical logic, it actually isn't - if we try to outline the schemas/rules of inference that correspond to the definition of the structures outlined above, we would see that they are virtually the same as the ones that define classical logic. With one exception - the of double negation elimination that we saw earlier, which is also known (in a slightly different form as the law of excluded middle.

This law is valid in classical logic and is true when we look at it in terms of truth tables, but there is no justification for it in intuinistic logic - a fact that spawned a heated debate between the inventor of classical logic David Hilbert and the inventor of intuinistic logic L.E.J. Brouwer, known as the Brouwer–Hilbert controversy.

Logics as categories

Leaving the differences between intuinistic and classical logics aside, the BHK interpretation is interesting because it provides a bit of the higher-level view of logic, that we need in order to represent it in terms of category theory.

This representation of logic, the one that does nor rely on formulas and propositions, but on objects and operations which obey is sometimes called an algebraic representation, algebraic being an umbrella term describing all structures that can be represented using category theory, like groups and orders

The Curry-Howard correspondence

Programmers might find the definition of the BHK interpretation very similar to a definition of a programming language, and it indeed is - this similarity is known as the Curry-Howard correspondence - propositions are types, the implies operations are functions, and operations are composite types (objects) and or operations are sum types (which are not supported in most programming languages). Finally a proof of a given proposition is represented by a value of the corresponding type.

Task: The Curry-Howard correspondence is also the basis of special types of programming languages called "proof assistants" which help you verify logical proofs. Install a proof assistant and try to see how it works (I recommend Mike Nahas's Coq Tutorial).

Cartesian closed categories

Having the Curry-Howard correspondence and knowing that programming languages can be described by category theory and this indeed is the case (this is why the Curry-Howard-Lambek correspondence attaching the name of the person who discovered the categorical side).

On one hand, it is not hard to see that logical systems, viewed through the set-theoretic lens of the BHK interpretation can be viewed as a categories.

Task: See whether you can prove that logic propositions and entailments forms a category. What is missing?

Defining logic in a categorical language, however, is a more complex question.

In order to answer it, we have to enumerate the criteria that a given category has to adhere to in order for it to be "logical". These criteria have to guarantee that the category has objects that correspond to all valid logical propositions and no objects that correspond to invalid ones. We won't describe these categories directly (by the way, they are called Cartesian closed categories). Instead we would start with a similar but simpler structures that we already examined - orders.

Logics as orders

Order theory captures all of the concepts that we saw, while providing some interesting insights on what logic is. This is why it is the usual default algebraic representation of simpler logics such as the ones we are introducing here.

If we assume that there is only one way to go from proposition A, to proposition B (or there are many ways, but they are equivalent), then logic is not only a category, but a preorder (which as we said is a category that has just one morphism between any two objects) in which the relationship "bigger than" is taken to mean "implies".

Furthermore, if we count propositions that follow from each other (or sets of propositions that have the same truth value and can be proven by the same proof) as equivalent, then logic is a proper partial order.

And so it can be represented by a Hasse diagram, yey.

Now back to the question we asked before: exactly which orders represent logic and what laws does an order have to obey so it is isomorphic to a logic? We will answer this question as we examine the main logical constructs again, this time in the context of logic.

The and and or operations

By now you probably realized that the and and or operations are the bread and butter of logic (although it's not clear which is which). In orders, these operations are represented by the meet and join operations, correspondingly.

In logic you can use the and and or operations for all propositions and here comes the first criteria for an order to be logical - it has to have meet and join operations for all elements. Incidentally we already know that such orders are called lattices.

One more important law concerning the and and or operations that is not always present in the meet-s and join-s concerns the connection between the two, i.e. way that the and and or operations distribute, over one another.

Lattices that obey this law are called distributive lattices, so logical systems are represented by distributive lattices.

In the previous chapter we said that distributive lattices are isomorphic to inclusion orders i.e. orders which contain all combinations of sets of a given number of elements and, circling back to the set-theoretic BHK interpretation, we see that the two theorems are really saying the same thing - the elements which participate in the inclusion are our prime propositions and are the the and the inclusions are all combinations of these elements, in an or relationship (for simplicity's sake, we are ignoring the and operation.)

NB: The symbols that we are using for and and or logical operations are flipped when compared tothe arrows of the arrows they don't ∧ is and and ∨ is or. That is because the logic order is drawn upside-down at some places.

In categorical logic, the and and or operations are represented (unsurprisingly) by products and coproducts.

The negation operation

In order to prove that our color-mixing lattice represents logic completely, we have to identify which objects correspond to the values True and False.

A trivial result in logic, called the principle of explosion, states that if we have a proof of False (or if "False is true" if we use the terminology from classical logic), than any and every statement can be proven. And it is also obvious that no true statement implies False. So here is it.

Circling back to the set-theoretic BHK interpretation, we see that the empty set fits both conditions.

Conversely, the proof of True (or the statement that "True is true") is trivial and doesn't say anything, so nothing follows from it, but at the same time it follows from every other statement.

So True and False are just the maximum and minimum objects of our order.

And in categorical logic, the True and False objects are represented by what we call terminal and initial objects. This is another example of the categorical concept of duality - True and False are dual to each other, just like and and or.

The implies operation

Finally, if a lattice really is isomorphic to a set of propositions, we it also has to have function objects i.e. there needs to be a rule that identifies a unique object A → B, for each pair of objects A and B, such that all axioms of intuinistic logic are followed.

And we would define the rule using categorical language - by recognizing a structure, that consists of set of relations between objects in which (A → B) plays a part.

This structure is actually a categorical reincarnation our rule of inference, called modus ponens, stating that A ∧ (A → B) → B. This rule is the essence of the implies operation and because we already know how the operations that it contains (and and implies) are represented in our lattice, we can directly "categorize" it and use it as a definition, saying that (A → B) is the object which has the following relations to objects A and B.

This definition is not complete, however, because (A → B) is not the only object that fits in this formula. For example, the set A → B ∧ C is also one such object, as is A → B ∧ C ∧ D. So how do we set apart the real formula from all those "imposter" formulas? If you remember the definitions of the categorical product or the definiton of the meet operation in orders (as meet is an instance of a categorical product) you would already know where this is going: we define the function object using a universal property by saying that all other formulas that can be in A ∧ X → B point to (A → B). And are below (A → B) in a Hasse diagram.

Or, we use the logic terminology, we say that A → B ∧ C and A → B ∧ C ∧ D etc. are all "stronger" results than A → B.

Let's try to test if this definition captures the concept correctly by examining a few special cases.

For example, let's take A and B to be the same object. In this case we have the formula A ∧ X → A (where X is A → A). But the meet of A and any other object would always be below A. So this formula is always for all X. So the biggest object that fits the description is just the biggest object there is i.e. True.

This corresponds to the identity axiom in logic, that states that everything follows from itself.

And by the similar logic we can see easily that if we take A to be any object that is below B, then (A → B) will also correspond to the True object.

So if we have A → B then (A → B) is true.

Let's take one more example - what if B is lower than A. In this case the highest object that fits the formula A ∧ X → B is... B itself. B fits the formula (because A ∧ B → B) and is definitely the highest object that does so.

This translated to logical language, says that if A → B and B → A, then

Conclusion

So this is the final condition for an order to be a representation of logic - for each pair A and B, it has to have a unique object X which obey the formula A ∧ X → B and the universal property. In category theory this object is called the exponential object.

By the way, distributivity follows from this criteria, so we are left with just these two points: Logic is represented by an order that has with meet and joins and a functional object.

Which is the shortest definition of logic there is.