wasm-bindgen/DESIGN.md

Design of wasm-bindgen

This is intended to be a bit of a deep-dive into how wasm-bindgen works today, specifically for Rust. If you're reading this far in the future it may no longer be up to date, but feel free to ping me and I can try to answer questions and/or update this!

Foundation: ES Modules

The first thing to know about wasm-bindgen is that it's fundamentally built on the idea of ES Modules. In other words this tool takes an opinionated stance that wasm files should be viewed as ES6 modules. This means that you can import from a wasm file, use its export-ed functionality, etc, from normal JS files.

Now unfortunately at the time of this writing the interface of wasm interop isn't very rich. Wasm modules can only call functions or export functions that deal exclusively with i32, i64, f32, and f64. Bummer!

That's where this project comes in. The goal of wasm-bindgen is to enhance the "ABI" of wasm modules with richer types like classes, JS objects, Rust structs, strings, etc. Keep in mind, though, that everything is based on ES Modules! This means that the compiler is actually producing a "broken" wasm file of sorts. The wasm file emitted by rustc, for example, does not have the interface we would like to have. Instead it requires the wasm-bindgen tool to postprocess the file, generating a foo.js and foo_wasm.wasm file. The foo.js file is the desired interface expressed in JS (classes, types, strings, etc) and the foo_wasm.wasm module is simply used as an implementation detail (it was lightly modified from the original foo.wasm file).

Foundation #2: Unintrusive in Rust

On the more Rust-y side of things the wasm-bindgen crate is designed to ideally have as minimal impact on a Rust crate as possible. Ideally a few #[wasm_bindgen] attributes are annotated in key locations and otherwise you're off to the races, but otherwise it strives to both not invent new syntax and work with existing idioms today.

For example the #[no_mangle] and extern ABI indicators are required for annotated free functions with #[wasm_bindgen], because these two snippets are actually equivalent:

#[no_mangle]
pub extern fn only_integers(a: i32) -> u32 {
    // ...
}

// is equivalent to...

#[wasm_bindgen]
#[no_mangle]
pub extern fn only_integers_with_wasm_bindgen(a: i32) -> u32 {
    // ...
}

Additionally the design here with minimal intervention in Rust should allow us to easily take advantage of the upcoming host bindings proposal. Ideally you'd simply upgrade wasm-bindgen-the-crate as well as your toolchain and you're immediately getting raw access to host bindings! (this is still a bit of a ways off though...)

Polyfill for "JS objects in wasm"

One of the main goals of wasm-bindgen is to allow working with and passing around JS objects in wasm. But wait, that's not allowed today! While indeed true, that's where the polyfill comes in!

The question here is how we shoehorn JS objects into a u32 for wasm to use. The current strategy for this approach is to maintain two module-local variables in the generated foo.js file: a stack and a heap.

Temporary JS objects on the stack

The stack in foo.js is, well, a stack. JS objects are pushed on the top of the stack, and their index in the stack is the identifier that's passed to wasm. JS objects are then only removed from the top of the stack as well. This data structure is mainly useful for efficiently passing a JS object into wasm without a sort of "heap allocation". The downside of this, however, is that it only works for when wasm doesn't hold onto a JS object (aka it only gets a "reference" in Rust parlance).

Let's take a look at an example.

// foo.rs
#[wasm_bindgen]
#[no_mangle]
pub extern fn foo(a: &JsValue) {
    // ...
}

Here we're using the special JsValue type from the wasm-bindgen library itself. Our exported function, foo, takes a reference to an object. This notably means that it can't persist the object past the lifetime of this function call.

Now what we actually want to generate is a JS module that looks like (in Typescript parlance)

// foo.d.ts
export function foo(a: any);

and what we actually generate looks something like:

// foo.js
import * as wasm from './foo_wasm';

let stack = [];

function addBorrowedObject(obj) {
  stack.push(obj);
  return stack.length - 1;
}

export function foo(arg0) {
  const idx0 = addBorrowedObject(arg0);
  try {
    wasm.foo(idx0);
  } finally {
    stack.pop();
  }
}

Here we can see a few notable points of action:

• The wasm file was renamed to foo_wasm.wasm, and we can see how the JS module generated here is importing from the wasm file.
• Next we can see our stack module variable which is used to push/pop items from the stack.
• Our exported function foo, takes an arbitrary argument, arg0, which is converted to an index with the addBorrowedObject object function. The index is then passed to wasm so wasm can operate with it.
• Finally, we have a finally which frees the stack slot as it's no longer used, issuing a pop for what was pushed at the start of the function.

It's also helpful to dig into the Rust side of things to see what's going on there! Let's take a look at the code that #[wasm_bindgen] generates in Rust:

// what the user wrote, note that #[no_mangle] is removed
pub extern fn foo(a: &JsValue) {
    // ...
}

#[export_name = "foo"]
pub extern fn __wasm_bindgen_generated_foo(arg0: u32) {
    let arg0 = unsafe {
        ManuallyDrop::new(JsValue::__from_idx(arg0))
    };
    let arg0 = &*arg0;
    foo(arg0);
}

And as with the JS, the notable points here are:

• The original function, foo, is unmodified in the output
• A generated function here (with a unique name) is the one that's actually exported from the wasm module
• Our generated function takes an integer argument (our index) and then wraps it in a JsValue. There's some trickery here that's not worth going into just yet, but we'll see in a bit what's happening under the hood.

Long-lived JS objects in a slab

The above strategy is useful when JS objects are only temporarily used in Rust, for example only during one function call. Sometimes, though, objects may have a dynamic lifetime or otherwise need to be stored on Rust's heap. To cope with this there's a second half of management of JS objects, a slab.

JS Objects passed to wasm that are not references are assumed to have a dynamic lifetime inside of the wasm module. As a result the strict push/pop of the stack won't work and we need more permanent storage for the JS objects. To cope with this we build our own "slab allocator" of sorts.

A picture (or code) is worth a thousand words so let's show what happens with an example.

// foo.rs
#[wasm_bindgen]
pub fn foo(a: JsValue) {
    // ...
}

Note that the & is missing in front of the JsValue we had before, and in Rust parlance this means it's taking ownership of the JS value. The exported ES module interface is the same as before, but the ownership mechanics are slightly different. Let's see the generated JS's slab in action:

import * as wasm from './foo_wasm'; // imports from wasm file

let slab = [];
let slab_next = 0;

function addHeapObject(obj) {
  if (slab_next == slab.length)
    slab.push(slab.length + 1);
  const idx = slab_next;
  const next = slab[idx];
  slab_next = next;
  slab[idx] = { obj, cnt: 1 };
  return idx;
}

export function foo(arg0) {
  const idx0 = addHeapObject(arg0);
  wasm.foo(idx0);
}

export function __wbindgen_object_drop_ref(idx) {
  let obj = slab[idx];
  obj.cnt -= 1;
  if (obj.cnt > 0)
    return;
  // If we hit 0 then free up our space in the slab
  slab[idx] = slab_next;
  slab_next = idx;
}

Unlike before we're now calling addHeapObject on the argument to foo rather than addBorrowedObject. This function will use slab and slab_next as a slab allocator to acquire a slot to store the object, placing a structure there once it's found.

Note here that a reference count is used in addition to storing the object. That's so we can create multiple references to the JS object in Rust without using Rc, but it's overall not too important to worry about here.

Another curious aspect of this generated module is the __wbindgen_object_drop_ref function. This is one that's actually imported from wasm rather than used in this module! This function is used to signal the end of the lifetime of a JsValue in Rust, or in other words when it goes out of scope. Otherwise though this function is largely just a general "slab free" implementation.

And finally, let's take a look at the Rust generated again too:

// what the user wrote
pub extern fn foo(a: JsValue) {
    // ...
}

#[export_name = "foo"]
pub extern fn __wasm_bindgen_generated_foo(arg0: u32) {
    let arg0 = unsafe {
        JsValue::__from_idx(arg0)
    };
    foo(arg0);
}

Ah that looks much more familiar! Not much interesting is happening here, so let's move on to...

Anatomy of JsValue

Currently the JsValue struct is actually quite simple in Rust, it's:

pub struct JsValue {
    idx: u32,
}

// "private" constructors

impl Drop for JsValue {
    fn drop(&mut self) {
        unsafe {
            __wbindgen_object_drop_ref(self.idx);
        }
    }
}

Or in other words it's a newtype wrapper around a u32, the index that we're passed from wasm. The destructor here is where the __wbindgen_object_drop_ref function is called to relinquish our reference count of the JS object, freeing up our slot in the slab that we saw above.

If you'll recall as well, when we took &JsValue above we generated a wrapper of ManuallyDrop around the local binding, and that's because we wanted to avoid invoking this destructor when the object comes from the stack.

Indexing both a slab and the stack

You might be thinking at this point that this system may not work! There's indexes into both the slab and the stack mixed up, but how do we differentiate? It turns out that the examples above have been simplified a bit, but otherwise the lowest bit is currently used as an indicator of whether you're a slab or a stack index.

Exporting a function to JS

Alright now that we've got a good grasp on JS objects and how they're working, let's take a look at another feature of wasm-bindgen: exporting functionality with types that are richer than just numbers.

The basic idea around exporting functionality with more flavorful types is that the wasm exports won't actually be called directly. Instead the generated foo.js module will have shims for all exported functions in the wasm module.

The most interesting conversion here happens with strings so let's take a look at that.

#[wasm_bindgen]
#[no_mangle]
pub extern fn greet(a: &str) -> String {
    format!("Hello, {}!", a)
}

Here we'd like to define an ES module that looks like

// foo.d.ts
export function greet(a: string): string;

To see what's going on, let's take a look at the generated shim

import * as wasm from './foo_wasm';

function passStringToWasm(arg) {
  const buf = new TextEncoder('utf-8').encode(arg);
  const len = buf.length;
  const ptr = wasm.__wbindgen_malloc(len);
  let array = new Uint8Array(wasm.memory.buffer);
  array.set(buf, ptr);
  return [ptr, len];
}

function getStringFromWasm(ptr, len) {
  const mem = new Uint8Array(wasm.memory.buffer);
  const slice = mem.slice(ptr, ptr + len);
  const ret = new TextDecoder('utf-8').decode(slice);
  return ret;
}

export function greet(arg0) {
  const [ptr0, len0] = passStringToWasm(arg0);
  try {
    const ret = wasm.greet(ptr0, len0);
    const ptr = wasm.__wbindgen_boxed_str_ptr(ret);
    const len = wasm.__wbindgen_boxed_str_len(ret);
    const realRet = getStringFromWasm(ptr, len);
    wasm.__wbindgen_boxed_str_free(ret);
    return realRet;
  } finally {
    wasm.__wbindgen_free(ptr0, len0);
  }
}

Phew, that's quite a lot! We can sort of see though if we look closely what's happening:

• Strings are passed to wasm via two arguments, a pointer and a length. Right now we have to copy the string onto the wasm heap which means we'll be using TextEncoder to actually do the encoding. Once this is done we use an internal function in wasm-bindgen to allocate space for the string to go, and then we'll pass that ptr/length to wasm later on.

• Returning strings from wasm is a little tricky as we need to return a ptr/len pair, but wasm currently only supports one return value (multiple return values is being standardized). To work around this in the meantime, we're actually returning a pointer to a ptr/len pair, and then using functions to access the various fields.

• Some cleanup ends up happening in wasm. The __wbindgen_boxed_str_free function is used to free the return value of greet after it's been decoded onto the JS heap (using TextDecoder). The __wbindgen_free is then used to free the space we allocated to pass the string argument once the function call is done.

At this point it may be predictable, but let's take a look at the Rust side of things as well

pub extern fn greet(a: &str) -> String {
    format!("Hello, {}!", a)
}

#[export_name = "greet"]
pub extern fn __wasm_bindgen_generated_greet(
    arg0_ptr: *const u8,
    arg0_len: usize,
) -> *mut String {
    let arg0 = unsafe {
        let slice = ::std::slice::from_raw_parts(arg0_ptr, arg0_len);
        ::std::str::from_utf8_unchecked(slice)
    };
    let _ret = greet(arg0);
    Box::into_raw(Box::new(_ret))
}

Here we can see again that our greet function is unmodified and has a wrapper to call it. This wrapper will take the ptr/len argument and convert it to a string slice, while the return value is boxed up into just a pointer and is then returned up to was for reading via the __wbindgen_boxed_str_* functions.

So in general exporting a function involves a shim both in JS and in Rust with each side translating to or from wasm arguments to the native types of each language. The wasm-bindgen tool manages hooking up all these shims while the #[wasm_bindgen] macro takes care of the Rust shim as well.

Most arguments have a relatively clear way to convert them, bit if you've got any questions just let me know!

Importing a function from JS

Now that we've exported some rich functionality to JS it's also time to import some! The goal here is to basically implement JS import statements in Rust, with fancy types and all.

First up, let's say we invert the function above and instead want to generate greetings in JS but call it from Rust. We might have, for example:

#[wasm_bindgen(module = "./greet")]
extern {
    fn greet(a: &str) -> String;
}

fn other_code() {
    let greeting = greet("foo");
    // ...
}

The basic idea of imports is the same as exports in that we'll have shims in both JS and Rust doing the necessary translation. Let's first see the JS shim in action:

import * as wasm from './foo_wasm';

import { greet } from './greet';

// ...

export function __wbg_f_greet(ptr0, len0, wasmretptr) {
  const [retptr, retlen] = passStringToWasm(greet(getStringFromWasm(ptr0, len0)));
  (new Uint32Array(wasm.memory.buffer))[wasmretptr / 4] = retlen;
  return retptr;
}

The getStringFromWasm and passStringToWasm are the same as we saw before, and like with __wbindgen_object_drop_ref far above we've got this weird export from our module now! The __wbg_f_greet function is what's generated by wasm-bindgen to actually get imported in the foo.wasm module.

The generated foo.js we see imports from the ./greet module with the greet name (was the function import in Rust said) and then the __wbg_f_greet function is shimming that import.

There's some tricky ABI business going on here so let's take a look at the generated Rust as well:

extern fn greet(a: &str) -> String {
    extern {
        fn __wbg_f_greet(a_ptr: *const u8, a_len: usize, ret_len: *mut usize) -> *mut u8;
    }
    unsafe {
        let a_ptr = a.as_ptr();
        let a_len = a.len();
        let mut __ret_strlen = 0;
        let mut __ret_strlen_ptr = &mut __ret_strlen as *mut usize;
        let _ret = __wbg_f_greet(a_ptr, a_len, __ret_strlen_ptr);
        String::from_utf8_unchecked(
            Vec::from_raw_parts(_ret, __ret_strlen, __ret_strlen)
        )
    }
}

Here we can see that the greet function was generated but it's largely just a shim around the __wbg_f_greet function that we're calling. The ptr/len pair for the argument is passed as two arguments and for the return value we're receiving one value (the length) indirectly while directly receiving the returned pointer.

Exporting a struct to JS

So far we've covered JS objects, importing functions, and exporting functions. This has given us quite a rich base to build on so far, and that's great! We sometimes, though, want to go even further and define a JS class in Rust. Or in other words, we want to expose an object with methods from Rust to JS rather than just importing/exporting free functions.

The #[wasm_bindgen] attribute can annotate both a struct and impl blocks to allow:

#[wasm_bindgen]
pub struct Foo {
    internal: i32,
}

#[wasm_bindgen]
impl Foo {
    pub fn new(val: i32) -> Foo {
        Foo { internal: val }
    }

    pub fn get(&self) -> i32 {
        self.internal
    }

    pub fn set(&mut self, val: i32) {
        self.internal = val;
    }
}

This is a typical Rust struct definition for a type with a constructor and a few methods. Annotating the struct with #[wasm_bindgen] means that we'll generate necessary trait impls to convert this type to/from the JS boundary. The annotated impl block here means that the functions inside will also be made available to JS through generated shims. If we take a look at the generated JS code for this we'll see:

import * as wasm from './foo_wasm';

export class Foo {
  constructor(ptr) {
    this.ptr = ptr;
  }

  free() {
    const ptr = this.ptr;
    this.ptr = 0;
    wasm.__wbindgen_foo_free(ptr);
  }

  static new(arg0) {
    const ret = wasm.foo_new(arg0);
    return new Foo(ret);
  }

  get() {
    return wasm.foo_get(this.ptr);
  }

  set(arg0) {
    wasm.foo_set(this.ptr, arg0);
  }
}

That's actually not much! We can see here though how we've translated from Rust to JS:

• Associated functions in Rust (those without self) turn into static functions in JS.
• Methods in Rust turn into methods in wasm.
• Manual memory management is exposed in JS as well. The free function is required to be invoked to deallocate resources on the Rust side of things.

It's intended that new Foo() is never used in JS. When wasm-bindgen is run with --debug it'll actually emit assertions to this effect to ensure that instances of Foo are only constructed with the functions like Foo.new in JS.

One important aspect to note here, though, is that once free is called the JS object is "neutered" in that its internal pointer is nulled out. This means that future usage of this object should trigger a panic in Rust.

The real trickery with these bindings ends up happening in Rust, however, so let's take a look at that.

// original input to `#[wasm_bindgen]` omitted ...

#[export_name = "foo_new"]
pub extern fn __wasm_bindgen_generated_Foo_new(arg0: i32) -> u32
    let ret = Foo::new(arg0);
    Box::into_raw(Box::new(WasmRefCell::new(ret))) as u32
}

#[export_name = "foo_get"]
pub extern fn __wasm_bindgen_generated_Foo_get(me: u32) -> i32 {
    let me = me as *mut WasmRefCell<Foo>;
    wasm_bindgen::__rt::assert_not_null(me);
    let me = unsafe { &*me };
    return me.borrow().get();
}

#[export_name = "foo_set"]
pub extern fn __wasm_bindgen_generated_Foo_set(me: u32, arg1: i32) {
    let me = me as *mut WasmRefCell<Foo>;
    ::wasm_bindgen::__rt::assert_not_null(me);
    let me = unsafe { &*me };
    me.borrow_mut().set(arg1);
}

#[no_mangle]
pub unsafe extern fn __wbindgen_foo_free(me: u32) {
    let me = me as *mut WasmRefCell<Foo>;
    wasm_bindgen::__rt::assert_not_null(me);
    (*me).borrow_mut(); // ensure no active borrows
    drop(Box::from_raw(me));
}

As with before this is cleaned up from the actual output but it's the same idea as to what's going on! Here we can see a shim for each function as well as a shim for deallocating an instance of Foo. Recall that the only valid wasm types today are numbers, so we're required to shoehorn all of Foo into a u32, which is currently done via Box (like std::unique_ptr in C++). Note, though, that there's an extra layer here, WasmRefCell. This type is the same as RefCell and can be mostly glossed over.

The purpose for this type, if you're interested though, is to uphold Rust's guarantees about aliasing in a world where aliasing is rampant (JS). Specifically the &Foo type means that there can be as much alaising as you'd like, but crucially &mut Foo means that it is the sole pointer to the data (no other &Foo to the same instance exists). The RefCell type in libstd is a way of dynamically enforcing this at runtime (as opposed to compile time where it usually happens). Baking in WasmRefCell is the same idea here, adding runtime checks for aliasing which are typically happening at compile time. This is currently a Rust-specific feature which isn't actually in the wasm-bindgen tool itself, it's just in the Rust-generated code (aka the #[wasm_bindgen] attribute).

Importing a class from JS

Just like with functions after we've started exporting we'll also want to import! Now that we've exported a class to JS we'll want to also be able to import classes in Rust as well to invoke methods and such. Since JS classes are in general just JS objects the bindings here will look pretty similar to the JS object bindings describe above.

As usual though, let's dive into an example!

#[wasm_bindgen(module = "./bar")]
extern {
    type Bar;

    #[wasm_bindgen(constructor)]
    fn new(arg: i32) -> Bar;

    #[wasm_bindgen(static = Bar)]
    fn another_function() -> i32;

    #[wasm_bindgen(method)]
    fn get(this: &Bar) -> i32;

    #[wasm_bindgen(method)]
    fn set(this: &Bar, val: i32);

    #[wasm_bindgen(method, getter)]
    fn property(this: &Bar) -> i32;

    #[wasm_bindgen(method, setter)]
    fn set_property(this: &Bar, val: i32);
}

fn run() {
    let bar = Bar::new(Bar::another_function());
    let x = bar.get();
    bar.set(x + 3);

    bar.set_property(bar.property() + 6);
}

Unlike our previous imports, this one's a bit more chatty! Remember that one of the goals of wasm-bindgen is to use native Rust syntax wherever possible, so this is mostly intended to use the #[wasm_bindgen] attribute to interpret what's written down in Rust. Now there's a few attribute annotations here, so let's go through one-by-one:

• #[wasm_bindgen(module = "./bar")] - seen before with imports this is declare where all the subsequent functionality is imported form. For example the Bar type is going to be imported from the ./bar module.
• type Bar - this is a declaration of JS class as a new type in Rust. This means that a new type Bar is generated which is "opaque" but is represented as internally containing a JsValue. We'll see more on this later.
• #[wasm_bindgen(constructor)] - this indicates that the binding's name isn't actually used in JS but rather translates to new Bar(). The return value of this function must be a bare type, like Bar.
• #[wasm_bindgen(static = Bar)] - this attribute indicates that the function declaration is a static function accessed through the Bar class in JS.
• #[wasm_bindgen(method)] - and finally, this attribute indicates that a method call is going to happen. The first argument must be a JS struct, like Bar, and the call in JS looks like Bar.prototype.set.call(...).

With all that in mind, let's take a look at the JS generated.

import * as wasm from './foo_wasm';

import { Bar } from './bar';

// other support functions omitted...

export function __wbg_s_Bar_new() {
  return addHeapObject(new Bar());
}

const another_function_shim = Bar.another_function;
export function __wbg_s_Bar_another_function() {
  return another_function_shim();
}

const get_shim = Bar.prototype.get;
export function __wbg_s_Bar_get(ptr) {
  return shim.call(getObject(ptr));
}

const set_shim = Bar.prototype.set;
export function __wbg_s_Bar_set(ptr, arg0) {
  set_shim.call(getObject(ptr), arg0)
}

const property_shim = Object.getOwnPropertyDescriptor(Bar.prototype, 'property').get;
export function __wbg_s_Bar_property(ptr) {
  return property_shim.call(getObject(ptr));
}

const set_property_shim = Object.getOwnPropertyDescriptor(Bar.prototype, 'property').set;
export function __wbg_s_Bar_set_property(ptr, arg0) {
  set_property_shim.call(getObject(ptr), arg0)
}

Like when importing functions from JS we can see a bunch of shims are generated for all the relevant functions. The new static function has the #[wasm_bindgen(constructor)] attribute which means that instead of any particular method it should actually invoke the new constructor instead (as we see here). The static function another_function, however, is dispatched as Bar.another_function.

The get and set functions are methods so they go through Bar.prototype, and otherwise their first argument is implicitly the JS object itself which is loaded through getObject like we saw earlier.

Some real meat starts to show up though on the Rust side of things, so let's take a look:

pub struct Bar {
    obj: JsValue,
}

impl Bar {
    fn new() -> Bar {
        extern {
            fn __wbg_s_Bar_new() -> u32;
        }
        unsafe {
            let ret = __wbg_s_Bar_new();
            Bar { obj: JsValue::__from_idx(ret) }
        }
    }

    fn another_function() -> i32 {
        extern {
            fn __wbg_s_Bar_another_function() -> i32;
        }
        unsafe {
            __wbg_s_Bar_another_function()
        }
    }

    fn get(&self) -> i32 {
        extern {
            fn __wbg_s_Bar_get(ptr: u32) -> i32;
        }
        unsafe {
            let ptr = self.obj.__get_idx();
            let ret = __wbg_s_Bar_get(ptr);
            return ret
        }
    }

    fn set(&self, val: i32) {
        extern {
            fn __wbg_s_Bar_set(ptr: u32, val: i32);
        }
        unsafe {
            let ptr = self.obj.__get_idx();
            __wbg_s_Bar_set(ptr, val);
        }
    }

    fn property(&self) -> i32 {
        extern {
            fn __wbg_s_Bar_property(ptr: u32) -> i32;
        }
        unsafe {
            let ptr = self.obj.__get_idx();
            let ret = __wbg_s_Bar_property(ptr);
            return ret
        }
    }

    fn set_property(&self, val: i32) {
        extern {
            fn __wbg_s_Bar_set_property(ptr: u32, val: i32);
        }
        unsafe {
            let ptr = self.obj.__get_idx();
            __wbg_s_Bar_set_property(ptr, val);
        }
    }
}

impl WasmBoundary for Bar {
    // ...
}

impl ToRefWasmBoundary for Bar {
    // ...
}

In Rust we're seeing that a new type, Bar, is generated for this import of a class. The type Bar internally contains a JsValue as an instance of Bar is meant to represent a JS object stored in our module's stack/slab. This then works mostly the same way that we saw JS objects work in the beginning.

When calling Bar::new we'll get an index back which is wrapped up in Bar (which is itself just a u32 in memory when stripped down). Each function then passes the index as the first argument and otherwise forwards everything along in Rust.

Imports and JS exceptions

By default wasm-bindgen will take no action when wasm calls a JS function which ends up throwing an exception. The wasm spec right now doesn't support stack unwinding and as a result Rust code will not execute destructors. This can unfortunately cause memory leaks in Rust right now, but as soon as wasm implements catching exceptions we'll be sure to add support as well!

In the meantime though fear not! You can, if necessary, annotate some imports as whether they should catch an exception. For example:

#[wasm_bindgen(module = "./bar")]
extern {
    #[wasm_bindgen(catch)]
    fn foo() -> Result<(), JsValue>;
}

Here the import of foo is annotated that it should catch the JS exception, if one occurs, and return it to wasm. This is expressed in Rust with a Result type where the T of the result is the otherwise successful result of the function, and the E must be JsValue.

Under the hood this generates shims that do a bunch of translation, but it suffices to say that a call in wasm to foo should always return appropriately.

Wrapping up

That's currently at least what wasm-bindgen has to offer! If you've got more questions though please don't hesitate to ask or open an issue!