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| language | contributors | filename | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| forth |
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learnforth.fs |
Forth was created by Charles H. Moore in the 70s.
Note: This article focuses predominantly on the Gforth implementation of Forth, but most of what is written here should work elsewhere.
If Lisp is the ultimate high level lang, Forth is the ultimate low level lang.
\ Forth is an interactive programming language which is comprised of
\ *words*. These are Forth subroutines which are executed once you press
\ <Cr>, from left to right.
\ --------------------------------- Precursor ----------------------------------
\ It's important to know how Forth processes instructions. All
\ programming in Forth is done by manipulating what's known as the parameter
\ stack (more commonly just referred to as "the stack"). Typing:
5 2 3 56 76 23 65
\ Makes those numbers get added to the stack, from left to right.
.s \ <7> 5 2 3 56 76 23 65 ok
\ Forth's interpreter interprets what you type in one of two ways: as *words*
\ (i.e. the name of subroutines) or as *numbers*.
\ ------------------------------ Basic Arithmetic ------------------------------
\ Arithmetic (in fact most words requiring data) works by manipulating data on
\ the stack.
5 4 + \ ok
\ This adds 5 and 4 to the stack and then `+` is called, which removes them and
\ adds the result to the stack. We can see it with `.`:
. \ 9 ok
\ A few more examples of arithmetic
6 7 * . \ 42 ok
1360 23 - . \ 1337 ok
12 12 / . \ 1 ok
\ ----------------------------- Stack Manipulation -----------------------------
\ Naturally, as we work with the stack, we'll want some useful methods:
3 dup - \ duplicate the top item (1st now equals 2nd): 3 - 3
2 5 swap / \ swap the top with the second element: 5 / 2
6 4 5 rot .s \ rotate the top 3 elements: 4 5 6 ok
4 0 drop 2 / \ remove the top item (dont print to screen): 4 / 2
\ ---------------------- More Advanced Stack Manipulation ----------------------
1 2 3 4 tuck \ duplicate the top item into the second slot: 1 2 4 3 4 ok
1 2 3 4 over \ duplicate the second item to the top: 1 2 3 4 3 ok
1 2 3 4 2 roll \ *move* the item at that position to the top: 1 3 4 2 ok
1 2 3 4 2 pick \ *duplicate* the item at that position to the top: 1 2 3 4 2 ok
\ When referring to stack indexes, they are zero-based.
\ ------------------------------ Creating Words --------------------------------
\ Quite often one will want to write their own words.
: square ( n -- n ) dup * ; \ ok
\ The `:` word sets Forth into compile mode. `(` and `)` are both words which
\ tell Forth to ignore between them. Up until the `;` word is what our word
\ does.
\ We can check the definition of a word with the `see` word:
see square \ dup * ; ok
\ -------------------------------- Conditionals --------------------------------
\ In Forth, -1 is used to represent truth, and 0 is used to represent false.
\ The idea is that -1 is 11111111 in binary, whereas 0 is obviously 0 in binary.
\ However, any non-zero value is usually treated as being true:
42 42 = / -1 ok
12 53 = / 0 ok
\ `if` is a *compile-only word*. This means that it can only be used when we're
\ compiling a word. The format is `if` <stuff to do> `then` <rest of program>.
: ?>64 ( n -- n ) DUP 64 > if ." Greater than 64!" then ; \ ok
100 ?>64 \ Greater than 64! ok
\ Else:
: ?>64 ( n -- n ) DUP 64 > if ." Greater than 64!" else ." Less than 64!" then ;
100 ?>64 \ Greater than 64! ok
20 ?>64 \ Less than 64! ok
\ ------------------------------------ Loops -----------------------------------
\ `do` is like `if` in that it is also a compile-only word, though it uses
\ `loop` as its terminator:
: myloop ( -- ) 5 0 do cr ." Hello!" loop ; \ ok
test
\ Hello!
\ Hello!
\ Hello!
\ Hello!
\ Hello! ok
\ `do` expects two numbers on the stack: the end number and the index number:
\ Get the value of the index as we loop with `i`:
: one-to-12 ( -- ) 12 0 do i . loop ; \ ok
one-to-12 \ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 ok
: squares ( -- ) 10 0 do i DUP * . loop ; \ ok
squares \ 0 1 4 9 16 25 36 49 64 81 ok
\ Change the "step" with `+loop`:
: threes ( -- ) 15 0 do i . 3 +loop ; \ ok
threes \ 0 3 6 9 12 ok
\ Finally, while loops with `begin` <stuff to do> <flag> `unil`:
: death ( -- ) begin ." Are we there yet?" 0 until ;
\ ---------------------------- Variables and Memory ----------------------------
\ Sometimes we'll be in a situation where we want more permanent variables:
\ First, we use `variable` to declare `age` to be a variable.
variable age
\ Then we write 21 to age with the word `!`.
21 age !
\ Finally we can print our variable using the "read" word '@', which adds the
\ value to the stack, or use `?` that reads and prints it in one go.
age @ . \ 12 ok
age ? \ 12 ok
\ What's happening here is that `age` stores the memory address, and we use `!`
\ and `@` to manipulate it.
\ Constants are quite simiar, except we don't bother with memory addresses:
100 constant WATER-BOILING-POINT \ ok
WATER-BOILING-POINT . \ 100 ok
\ ----------------------------------- Arrays -----------------------------------
\ Set up an array of length 3:
variable mynumbers 2 cells allot
\ Initialize all the values to 0
mynumbers 3 cells erase
\ (alternatively we could do `0 fill` instead of `erase`, but as we're setting
\ them to 0 we just use `erase`).
\ or we can just skip all the above and initialize with specific values:
create mynumbers 64 , 9001 , 1337 , \ the last `,` is important!
\ ...which is equivalent to:
\ [64, 9001, 1337]
64 mynumbers 0 cells + !
9001 mynumbers 1 cells + !
1337 mynumbers 2 cells + !
\ Reading values at certain array indexes:
0 cells mynumbers + ? \ 64 ok
1 cells mynumbers + ? \ 9001 ok
2 cells mynumbers + ? \ 1337 ok
\ Of course, you'll probably want to define your own words to manipulate arrays:
: ?mynumbers ( n -- n ) cells mynumbers + ; \ ok
64 mynumbers 2 cells + ! \ ok
2 ?mynumbers ? \ 64 ok
\ ------------------------------ The Return Stack ------------------------------
\ The return stack is used by Forth to the hold pointers to things when
\ words are executing other words, e.g. loops.
\ We've already seen one use of it: `i`, which duplicates the top of the return
\ stack. `i` is equivalent to `r@`.
: myloop ( -- ) 5 0 do r@ . loop ;
\ As well as reading, we can add to the return stack and remove from it:
5 6 4 >r swap r> .s \ 6 5 4
\ NOTE: Because Forth uses the return stack for word pointers, it's essential
\ that you set the return stack back to how it was at the end of your
\ definition. `>r` should always be followed by `r>`.
\ ------------------------- Floating Point Operations --------------------------
\ Most Forths tend to dislike the use of floating point operations. We write
\ floating point operations with scientific notation.
8.3e 0.8e f+ f. \ 9.1 ok
\ Usually we can just prepend arithmetic words with 'f' to use floating point
\ arithmetic:
variable myfloatingvar \ ok
4.4e myfloatingvar f! \ ok
myfloatingvar f@ f. \ 4.4 ok
\ --------------------------------- Final Notes --------------------------------
\ bye
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